Classicism Versus Positivism

Two criminological approaches that have the origin in contemporary criminology are classicism and positivism. Classicism has the origin in the eighteenth century and positivism in the nineteenth. Both, the classical and the positivism theory are expanded in the past with their own roots, but in today criminal justice system are still alive. Classicism was first developed by Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham, two famous writers which propose in their works that both law and administration of justice should be based on rationality and human rights. Cesare Beccaria’s concept of punishment is that â€Å"punishment should fit the crime.Criminals are seen to owe a ‘debt’ to society and punishment should be fixed strictly in proportion to the seriousness of the crime. † (Beccaria, 1974 cited in Burke, 2001, p. 27) and Jeremy Bentham greatest principle was â€Å"the greatest happiness for the greatest number, he felt that punishments should be calculated to infli ct pain in direct proportion to the damage done to the public interest. † (Criminology a social introduction, second edition, p. 56) Positivism or ‘the science of crime’ was first developed by Cesare Lambroso in the late nineteenth century.He is the founder of modern criminology and he is known for his notion of the ‘atavistic criminal’ (Taylor et all, 1973, p. 41) and he described criminals as â€Å"atavistic, a throwback to an earlier form of evolutionary life† (Taylor et all, 1973, p. 41). Cesare Lambroso defined them into five main categories: born criminals, epileptics, insane criminals, occasional criminals and criminals of passion. (Lecture 3) â€Å"Positivism within criminology has been enormously influential and comes for substantive and sustained criticism.Critics of individual positivism such as David Matza (1964) argue that it draws on three problematic sets of assumptions (Tierney, 1996): determinism, differentiation and pathology . † (Criminology, Tim Newburn, p. 128) Firstly both criminological approaches have different perspective on the human subject. The classicalist theory says that human are rational beings with a free will to act and once they make a decision they must accept the consequences after it. They are individuals and they make a ration choice.On the other hand the positivist theory says humans have no moral responsibility, they are driven into crime by forces largely out of their control and they are using methods derived from the natural sciences and their crime is caused by biological, psychological or social factors (‘determinism’). â€Å"Crime is not a free choice but is determined. Positivism is a deterministic theory. † (Criminology a social introduction, second edition, p. 63). Secondly in the classical model â€Å"unlike positivism, it views committing crime as making a free choice† (Criminology a social introduction, second edition, p. 8). In positiv ism theory we can find a ‘differentiation’, â€Å"the criminal is a specific type of person† (Criminology a social introduction, second edition, p. 62) and criminals differ from non-criminals. Thirdly between classicism and positivism is also a pathology difference: the criminals are not only different; there is something wrong with them. Cesare Lombroso â€Å"identified not just the born criminal, but also the emotional criminal, the morally insane criminal and masked epileptic criminal† (Criminology a social introduction, second edition, p. 62).In conclusion these two contrasting approaches are different and contain distinct periods in the past, classicism and positivism. I believe it is fair to say that their existence is not as heavily relied upon as it once was in the past. Bibliographic reference: An introduction to criminological theory, Roger Hopkins Burke. (2001) Criminology a social introduction, Eamonn Carrabine, Pam Cox, Maggy Lee, Ken Plummer and Nigel South. (Second edition, 2009) The New Criminology, Taylor, I. , Walton, P. and Young, J. , Chapter 1. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. (1973) Criminology, Tim Newburn. (2007)

Analysis of Crooks – Of Mice and Men

Crooks is a lively, sharp-witted, black stable-hand, who takes his name from his crooked back. Like most of the characters in the story, he admits that he is extremely lonely. When Lennie visits him in his room, his reaction reveals this fact. At first, he turns Lennie away, hoping to prove a point that if he, as a black man, is not allowed in white men’s houses, then whites are not allowed in his, but his desire for company ultimately wins out and he invites Lennie to sit with him. Like Curley’s wife, Crooks is a disempowered character who turns his vulnerability into a weapon to attack those who are even weaker.He plays a cruel game with Lennie, suggesting to him that George is gone for good. Only when Lennie threatens him with physical violence does he relent. Crooks exhibits the corrosive effects that loneliness can have on a person; his character evokes sympathy as the origins of his cruel behavior are made evident. Perhaps what Crooks wants more than anything else is a sense of belonging—to enjoy simple pleasures such as the right to enter the bunkhouse or to play cards with the other men.This desire would explain why, even though he has reason to doubt George and Lennie’s talk about the farm that they want to own, Crooks cannot help but ask if there might be room for him to come along and hoe in the garden. Candy One of the book’s major themes and several of its dominant symbols revolve around Candy. The old handyman, aging and left with only one hand as the result of an accident, worries that the boss will soon declare him useless and demand that he leave the ranch.Of course, life on the ranch—especially Candy’s dog, once an impressive sheep herder but now toothless, foul-smelling, and brittle with age—supports Candy’s fears. Past accomplishments and current emotional ties matter little, as Carson makes clear when he insists that Candy let him put the dog out of its misery. In such a world, Candy’s dog serves as a harsh reminder of the fate that awaits anyone who outlives his usefulness. For a brief time, however, the dream of living out his days with George and Lennie on their dream farm distracts Candy from this harsh reality.He deems the few acres of land they describe worthy of his hard-earned life’s savings, which testifies to his desperate need to believe in a world kinder than the one in which he lives. Like George, Candy clings to the idea of having the freedom to take up or set aside work as he chooses. So strong is his devotion to this idea that, even after he discovers that Lennie has killed Curley’s wife, he pleads for himself and George to go ahead and buy the farm as planned.

Business opportunity Essay

The opportunity announcement provides both weekday and weekend minimum for service hours An independent business calculates service revenue by applying the calculation located in the opportunity announcement under the program details section. The Stramatic 2. 0 is the system use to schedule and manage service hours. C. 5 actions to reduce noise levels in your office Ensure the door to your office remains closed while you work. If sound passes through the door, consider investing in a solid core door. Close the windows to outside noise Do not place your desk against a wall with a TV set, dishwasher, or washer/dryer on the other side. Purchase a noise cancelling telephone headset. It should have an â€Å"echo-canceller† which reduces vibrations between the speaker and the listener. If your office has wooden floor or tiles, consider investing in carpet because it tends to muffle sounds. D. Maintaining a professional manner and image Professionalism: approach the service you provide with the same professionalism that you would give if you were working in a corporate office setting. Phone etiquette: answer your business phone with a focused response, clearly stating the name of the client with a positive and natural tone. Family rules E. Check your understanding You should use DSL and cable to service arise clients F. Security protection Acceptable software: virus protection (Norton), antispyware (Norton), and firewall (windows firewall). You must have at least one software program from each of the three categories of protection. Installation: you must install and enable antivirus, anti-spyware, and firewall software on your computer before servicing arise clients Host checker III. Lesson 3: selecting business opportunities A. You can select a business opportunity through the: Partner admissions dashboard: the place where you are currently going through the admissions process. This is where you will have your first chance to select a business opportunity and enroll in the related client course The arise portal: you will only be able to select business opportunities listed on the Arise Portal after you have selected you first business opportunity. B. Check your understanding C. Check your understanding D. Check your understanding E. Maximize your marketability Be selective and focus on relevant skills and accomplishments Improve your credentials by making them more competetive. F. Give yourself a competitive edge Choose the wording that will have the greatest impact Use verbs that best describe your abilities, skills, and accomplishments Review each section to see if you can edit your sentence to make a more favorable impression. Remember it is important to be truthful at all times G. Overview of the arise portal The 5 major functions of the arise portal: G.. 1. Reviewing available business opportunities G.. 2. Accessing Quick Links G.. 3. Accessing Starmatic 2. 0 G.. 4. Reviewing the network status section G.. 5. Accessing support chat rooms H. Check your understanding I. The 2 arise support channels The admissions team: contact for questions related to the admissions process by chat Monday-Friday 1000-1700 EST Ava: contact for any non-admissions related questions about Business opportunities, technical issues or other topic by virtual and live chat 24/7

A need for offender Programs and Treatments before Release Research Proposal

A need for offender Programs and Treatments before Release - Research Proposal Example In fact, it is apparent that one of the major fueling factors to such incidences is the lack of self esteem, which is worsened by continued psychological torture. Studies have documented that such people can be helped by a way of instilling some appropriate programs that can mentor them. If this is done, Alabama Department of Corrections would benefit from advantages accrued to the use of these programs in terms of helping the offenders correct their behaviors. This has the end results of reducing prison overcrowding. In essence, this is true because once an offender is subjected into these programs; he/she is able to start a new life free from crimes. Although the criminal justice system helps the community by arresting and incarcerating criminals, it is apparent that there are many criminals walking freely in the streets. Some of these criminals are associates of incarcerated persons (May, 2008). In this regard, if the incarcerated persons are reformed through offender programs and prelease programs, they can influence their uncaught counterparts in changing their behaviors. Therefore, this goes a long way in enhancing security and sanity in the community. It is also apparent that once these measures have been taken by Alabama Department of Corrections, other correctional centers will emulate steps taken by Alabama Department of Corrections in order to advance their services too. In fact, this translates to savings by government. For example, it is evident that correctional facilities consume a lot of Dollars annually in the bid to reform offenders. In light with this, the government can save the money used to reform offenders since the number of cases of recidivism will be reduced by the introduction of offender programs and preleases treatment. Furthermore, studies have also suggested that states with high levels of crimes experience low economic growth. Therefore, the findings of this research will help to develop a framework that can elucidate the use of offender programs and prelease treatment, which in turn will be of great help to the economic development of Alabama State. The budget With these facts tabled, it is apparent that this research is indispensable. However, there are some requirements for the research to take place. One of them is the ability by the researcher o gather comprehensive data both from literatures and fast hand information, which is intended to be obtained from offenders, former incarcerated persons, and officers from Alabama Department of Corrections. For this to happen, the research would require enough time and resources to carryout the research. The first ingredient of the budget involves project/research planning. It is vital to carefully plan on such an important project. This will involve outlining the project and making all necessary consultations from relevant authorities. The first group of people to consult/confirm their participation in the study is the offenders and ex-offenders. In order to ac hieve this, phone call, and several visits will be required. This translates to spending money in terms of fares and airtime to use on calls and other resources. It is also important to visit several libraries in order to gather some information on theories that articulate on crime and behavior. This means that the research will

The Gospel Message Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Gospel Message - Coursework Example Although they know that the things they are doing are wrong, they choose to satisfy their desires and this makes them reject the gospel. One emotional reason why people reject the gospel is being unworthy of God’s love because they have sinned too much and should not be forgiven. Some are just too proud to acknowledge their sins and humble before God. Others have been hurt so deeply they would not like to forgive and so they reject the gospel because they know they that if they turn their hearts to God, they must forgive. People argue that the gospel does not answer all life’s questions the way science does. Some question the validity of the stories in the Bible. Others question God’s attributes. For instance they ask, â€Å"If God is good, why is there hell?† or â€Å"If God is almighty, why is there chaos and hardship?† Christians should have a good grasp of the gospel so that they will be able to point out the specific verses that answer specific arguments. In addition, they should be sure of their convictions so that they can use their own personal experiences or encounter with God to convince others like Paul

Case study Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Case study - Term Paper Example idemiologically, modifying hypotheses, if needed, comparing and reconciling with laboratory and/or environmental studies, implementing control and prevention measures, monitoring, and publishing or presenting findings In cases of gastrointestinal illness, such as the one given, there are a lot of differential diagnoses. Esophageal symptoms, although commonly due to gastroesophageal reflux disease and large idiopathic ulcers, can also be caused by Candida, Cytomegalovirus or Herpes simplex infection. Diarrhea, on the other hand, is usually by idiopathic/HIV enteropathy, or infection by Cytomegalovirus, Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter, Clostridium difficile, and Giardia lamblia. Meanwhile, hepatic disorders are caused by drug toxicity, hepatitis A, B or C infection, syphilis, Mycobacterium avium, Cryptococcus neoformans, Cytomegalovirus, Bartonella henselae, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Biliary disorders can result from infection by Cryptosporidia, Mycobacterium avum, Microsporidia, and Cytomegalovirus, while pancreatitis can be due to drug toxicities or opportunistic infections (Marriot & Post, 2009). If an infection has occurred, the likely source of infection must be identified. modes of transmission: the possible ways, such as direct contact, inhalation, vehicle-borne, fecal-oral, and vector-borne, by which the pathogen is spread to one susceptible person to another. A vehicle is a mode of transmission using a non-living thing, in this case either water or food, which carried the bacteria, and led to its inoculation of susceptible individuals, while a vector is an organism, usually an insect such as mosquito, that carries the pathogen that causes the disease. Contact with a vector, like getting a mosquito bite, transmits the microorganism to an individual. If he or she is susceptible, development of disease ensues (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). To identify the most likely mode of transmission and the most plausible cause of the

Advertising and Promotion ( MKTG420 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Advertising and Promotion ( MKTG420 - Assignment Example It is of considerable importance to highlight that this technology propelled development has resulted in the process of global transformation, where the entire world is increasingly seen and represented as a well connected single global entity. As a result of the technology based transformation of the globe, there has always been a continuous evolution of various kinds of globalization trends. The trends of globalization are emerging from all corners of the world and are increasingly getting diffused at a very rapid pace. It is interesting to state that the diffusion of trends is happening all over the world irrespective of the fact of whether the regions are located in the developed or developing economies. The rapid diffusion of the trends of globalization is resulting in the process of generation of many new types of consumer demands which are basically an outcome of new kinds of consumption habits as well as individual behaviour. It has to be stated that these new consumer demands are increasingly paving the way for a significant amount of business opportunity. Talking from a broad macroeconomic perspective, the economies of various countries around the world are witnessing significant fluctuation of performance more or less on a regular basis. While the credit crisis of the recent past has taken a serious toll in the performance of the European economies, the recent US shutdown has also impacted the performance capability of the world’s biggest market in a very negative fashion. Also, the continued political crisis in some of the regions of the Middle East has continued to mar the chances of growth and economic performance of those regions. In discussing the economic performance scenario of the Asian economies, it needs to be stated that the fluctuations in currency as well as market based volatility has continued to paint a gloomy picture as of the current times.

Aviation Argument Paper Term Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Aviation Argument - Term Paper Example The White paper has a self-serving interpretation of the air traffic control outsourcing proposal. Indeed, the time for the outsourcing of the American air traffic control jobs is now. The outsourcing of the air traffic control job contains many issues. The research centers on the advantages of outsourcing. The research focuses on the White paper’s biased analysis of the outsourcing alterative. The time for outsourcing the air traffic control processes must not be delayed further. The privatization of ATC will improve current air traffic service. Ron Hira (2008) emphasized â€Å"Offshore outsourcing in the services sector is a major shift in how our economy operates, and it will have serious impacts on the trajectory of economic growth, national security, the distribution of income, and the workforce. These impacts will be both positive and negative. When the business owners and consultants who are moving jobs overseas claim that their actions will have a clear net positive, they are merely fortune telling†. In terms of air safety data shows that Canada’s air safety is better than the current United States air safety program. Canada outsources its air traffic control responsibilities. In addition, there is better safety statistics in United States airports run by private contractors (outsource companies) when compared to the air safety statistics of United States airports run by Federal Aviation Administration or FAA. In addition, Nav Canada complied with all requirements to effectively and efficiently control the landing and takeoff of planes with its airports. The Canada outsourcing companies cooperated with NORAD and Federal Aviation Administration by implementing high quality air traffic control operations. With privatization, there will be smoother and quicker implementation of advanced air traffic control technology, which is beyond the current FAA’s current slow modernization activities. Outsourcing

Marketing research Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Marketing research - Essay Example ?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦11 Marketing Research Project: Coffee Shops – A Pilot Usage and Attitude Study Introduction: Coffee shops are commonly defined as establishments that primarily serve prepared coffee along with light snacks. From a cultural point of view, coffee shops serves as centres of social interaction where individuals especially youths are provided with a place to congregate, talk, read, write, entertain one another. As defined by Mintel (2009), coffee shops are shops where â€Å"coffee is the primary sales item. They are based on the European and North American coffee shop models, typified by Starbucks, Costa Coffee, Cafe Nero and Coffee Republic and offer a wide variety and different types of coffee, e.g. cappuccino, latte, mocha, etc. Other items are usually on sale, such as pastries, tea, coffee beans, etc. Ho wever, the food offer may be restricted.† Further, the operational venues of these coffee shops are also of relevance: â€Å"Coffee shops include venues such as individual stores, kiosks and concessions. These may operate in a number of locations – motorway service areas (MSAs), health clubs and hospitals, for example. However, they must be independent of the facility they are located in.† (Mintel, 2009) This paper briefly addresses the report of a pilot study on the usage and attitude of coffee consumers, especially young consumers. The data collection for the survey report has mainly been conducted in big coffee shop brand names such as Starbucks and Costa Coffee from the localities of London. The data was collected from 20 young people aged 18 and above, along with a well-structured questionnaire designed on the basis of the usage and attitude of the young coffee consumers. Moreover, the paper looks into the broader picture of coffee shops market in the UK. It briefly provides the current scenario of the UK coffee shops market, which is now considered a booming market contributing remarkably to the UK economy. While competition is getting tougher, the usage and attitude of the young coffee consumers are becoming significantly essential for the coffee shops in order to accomplish competitive advantage. Methodology: Coffee shops are growing faster and wider, thanks to the novel process of globalisation. With the level of market competition growing fast, there is also a growing need of more variables to be included in the market analysis of coffee shops. The study included in this paper is a pilot survey designed to test the questionnaire and the survey approach and to produce some exploratory information which may be of interest to marketing decision makers. The survey conducted for the purpose comprised of 20 young people (aged 18 and above) and students, to be administered by respondent self-completion. In order to explain the behavioura l and attitudinal information of the young consumers of coffee shops, the survey has collected data from both males and females, and coffee shop users and non-users as well. Research objectives:

Classical and Baroque Style Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Classical and Baroque Style - Essay Example There were several important forms that were used during this period. These included the mass, Missa Brevis, Missa Solemnis, requiem, and the vespers (Downs 69). Furthermore, the classical choral was homophonic and lighter in its texture. In addition, during this era, music was given careful attention by elegance, to form and restraint. The music was objective in nature and emotions were carefully controlled. In contrary, the Baroque period was dominated by chants and choral music. There were poems that were accompanied by instruments meant for praises. Music had the triadic harmony which made the music more complex. Furthermore, this music was dramatic and expansive. This music marked the beginning of harmony and melody use. Melodies were now played with a group of instruments in a chamber or by soloists in a concerto. For instance, Brandenburg concerto is one of the major Baroque concertos. It was composed by J.S Bach. The period led to the creation of foundations of scales and chords. Modulation in composition was also another style that emerged during this period. The period had composers like Monteverdi and Vivaldi. The period was also characterized by polyphonic approach and the basic form of the period was type of the three parts and it also incorporated the binary form. However, the two periods have some factors in unison. For instance, most of the instrumental forms like sonata a nd symphony were invented in the Baroque period but they were used in the classical era.

The mechanisms that underlay the repairs of DNA damages Thesis

The mechanisms that underlay the repairs of DNA damages - Thesis Example Cytarabine is used in the treatment of acute cases of lymphomas and leukemia. The key mutants to be acted upon are deoxyribonucleoside kinase and deoxycytidine kinase. Using S. pombe provides a greater advantage as it can be easily manipulated both physically and genetically. It also helps to understand the DNA repair mechanism in higher eukaryotes. In its natural form, yeasts do not contain a particular transporter and the particular kinase used to phosphorylate nucleoside analogues. Therefore, in this project, the S. pombe in use is adapted in that it contains deoxynucleotide kinase (dmdHK) which is found in Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly) and is important for their phosphorylation (the addition of a phosphate molecule on to a protein molecule or any other organic molecule). It also contains the human membrane transporter (hENTI) which allows the nucleoside analogue to directly interfere with the processes taking place within the cell. 2.1.0 Material used in the practical 2.1.1 S. pombe strains The S.pombe strains used in this practical are listed below: WT: h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 URA4aim Swi10: (h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 swi10::KanMX URA4aim) Removal of damage in nucleotide excision repair. exo1: (h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 exo1::URA) Removal of damage in mismatch repair. rhp14: (h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 rhp14:: KanMX URA4aim). Recognition of damage in the process of nucleotide excision repair. rad50: (h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 rad50:: KanMX URA4aim) of the MRN(Mre11,Rad50,Nbs1) complex, for repair of double strand breaks. rad32D65N: (h+ ura4-D18::adhdmdNK-NAT-adhhENT1 rad32D65N URA4aim). Mre11 nuclease dead, lacks the activity of Mre11 in double strand breaks repair. 2.1.2 Medias Liquid 2.1.2.1 EMM+Glut {(EMM broth without nitrogen 109.2 g + Glutamic acid 15g) liquid + Granulated agar 10g} solid . 2.1.3: Preparing Agarose gel: first PCR Procedure: 1. With the use tape, seal all the borders of a dry and cle an glass plate. This is important for forming mold. 2. Prepare 50ml 10X TBE (Tris-boric acid-EDTA) buffer for the preparation of the gel. 3. Add 0.8% of powdered Agarose to the TBE (Tris-boric acid-EDTA) buffer in an Erlenmeyer flask. The buffer should occupy less than 50% of the total flask volume. 4. Heat the solution in a water bath or a microwave oven to facilitate the dissolving of all the Agarose grains. During the heating process, part of the buffer will evaporate. As such it is important to add more buffer solution in order to return the solution to the original volume. 5. After heating, cool the solution to 60Â °C and immerse the solution in an ethidium bromide solution once the gel solidifies. Ethidium bromide helps to intercalate DNA thus making it visible under ultra violet light. 6. Place the comb 1.0 mm above the place consequently allowing for the formation of a complete well once the Agarose solidifies. It is important to avoid air bubbles that may form between or u nder the teeth of the comb. Seal the plate with small quantities of the Agarose solution through a Pasteur pipette. Once the plate is sealed, transfer the gel in to the glass plate. It is important to swirl the gel in the flask to ensure uniformity in the temperature before pouring it out into the plate to prevent the gel for hardening unevenly. 7. The gel is expected to have

Travel with Companion Essay Example for Free

Travel with Companion Essay After working hard or finishing courses, many people want to have a tour which they have fun and relax. Many people like to travel with a companion ; other people prefer to travel alone. So I love traveling with friends more than traveling alone because it is convenient and brings me a lot of memories. Firstly, traveling with my best friends is great and gives me many nice memories. Also, it brings more fun because you can do a lot of things, and different people have different ideas on what to do. For example, we can go sightseeing, eat and take photos together. For one thing, I can share happiness with others instead of enjoying it lonely even the landscape is really graceful. For another thing, we can take care of each other because we are friends. On the other hand, I can save tour expenditure when traveling with friends. That is a reason why many people do not like to travel alone. I can rent double rooms, king-size rooms instead of renting only a single room. Besides, I think it is a bit troublesome to travel with friends because I will always feel safe, especially if I am going to somewhere dangerous. For instance, if I am travel sick and need to take medicine, someone can help me. In conclusion, I assured that my tour will be happier if I go with my friends. This brings nice memories and convenience to me. Therefore, I can enjoy my tour wonderfully.

Analysis of Model of Service Delivery in Paediatric Care

Analysis of Model of Service Delivery in Paediatric Care Successful implementation of a paediatric community home nursing service as a model of service delivery in acute paediatric care Abstract Aim: The aim of this pilot service development was determine if CommunityChildrensNursingOutreach Team (CCNOT) service as a model of care was effective in its delivery of reducing unscheduled care and admissions to hospital and improving patient satisfaction. Methods: The following outcomes were determined:1)reducing length of hospital stay 2) reducing Accident and Emergency admissions 2)reducing non-elective admissions 3) reducing readmissions and 4)improving patient satisfaction. Results: The data indicates that AE attendances had reduced by 5% per month, NEL admissions had reduced by 15.8%, readmissions had reduced by 17.3% and the overall LOS was increased by 2.3%. The results of the patent satisfaction survey shows overall a high patient satisfaction for the service. Conclusions: Paediatric CCNOT service as a model of service delivery in acute paediatric care is effective in reducing hospital admissions and increases patient and carer satisfaction with care provision for sick children in the home environment. Key Phrases: Paediatric community home nursing service as a model of service delivery within acute paediatric care is effective in reducing AE admissions, non-elective admissions and readmissions. It significantly increases patient and carer satisfaction with care provision for sick children with appropriate conditions in the home environment. Paediatric community home nursing should be implemented with nurses trained in paediatrics and with clear clinical governance, pathways and robust documentation. Introduction Paediatric emergency admissions and length of stay in hospitals in the United Kingdom are increasing (Kyle et al. 2013). Community home nursing service or CommunityChildrensNursingOutreach Teams (CCNOTs) have been developed to manage acutely ill children athome, to reduce length on inpatient hospital stay andto reduce demand for unscheduled care (Hall et al. 2005). The CCNOT model of care has been shown in a previous randomised controlled trial comparing an acute paediatric hospital at home scheme with conventional hospital care as a clinically acceptable form of care for management of acute paediatric illness (Sartain et al. 2002). Referral pathways to CCNOTs may reduce avoidable admissions and minimise the psychosocial impact of hospitalisation on children and families, and reduce the financial costs to the National Health Service (NHS). Paediatricians and commissioners face considerable challenges in light of recent budget cuts in the NHS. Research undertaken by the University of Central Lancashire and the University of the West of England for the Department of Health described the importance of reliable, accessible expert community home nursing provision to families to enable them to care for their child at home and recorded the families’ deep frustration at the patchy, fragmented postcode lottery provision of services that currently exists (Department of Health 2011). Background Services that meet the needs of children and their families must continue to be provided in a safe, high quality and sustainable manner. In our desire to improve the quality of care in paediatric services in the face of rising public expectations, there is a need for change within new working hours and new ways of providing. The case for change can be complex, with decisions made to balance key areas of clinical effectiveness, best practice, patient safety, accessibility, staff retention and sustainability. The Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health (RCPCH) recognises the importance of ensuring that services for children are designed to provide high quality care as close to home as possible and that such services need to adapt and respond to the demands and needs of the patient. The Colleges current work to model the future configuration of paediatric services discussed the move towards delivering acute care within the community such as community home nursing service (RCPCH 20 05). The aim of this pilot service development was determine if CCNOT service as a model of care was effective and efficient in its delivery of reducing unscheduled care and admissions to hospital and improving patient satisfaction. Methods Clinical Commissioning Groups (CCGs) are responsible for planning and designing of the local health services in England. Within a dual-site integrated care organisation Southport and Ormskirk NHS Trust, a pilot CCNOT service was developed in March 2013 following negotiations between the Trust and the CCGs in Sefton and Lancashire. The remit of the pilot service specification aims were to determine the effectiveness of CCNOT in the following outcomes 1) reducing length of hospital stay 2) reducing Accident and Emergency admissions 2) reducing non-elective admissions 3) reducing readmissions and 4) improving patient satisfaction. Funding was sought for 7.2 WTE paediatric trained nurses at band 5 to 6 and 0.5 WTE admin and Clerical support staff. CCNOT referrals were taken from accident and emergency, the short stay paediatric admissions unit (SSPAU), the inpatient ward and from the tertiary hospital Alder Hey Foundation Trust for patients residing in North Sefton, Formby and West Lancashire, which covers a population of approximately 300,000. Collaborations were made with Pharmacy, IT and specialist services to develop robust e-discharge summaries from the community and the ability for CCNOT to deliver three times daily intravenous antibiotics in patient’s homes 7 days a week. The service ran from 7am to 10pm seven days a week. It was also necessary to set up all the operational aspects of the team including admission criteria, clear clinical governance and pathways, robust documentation and purchasing necessary equipment. The service was managed overall by the Paediatric and Neonatal matron. The CCNOT was led by the paediatric matron with regular supervision and mentorship of a lead CCNOT Consultant Paediatrician. Clear clinical criterias for referrals made to CCNOT were developed and clinical pathways were followed to ensure that each referral pathway was safe and robust. (see Figure 1) Any referral was discussed with the CCNOT between a Registrar or a Consultant. Each diagnostic pathway was clearly followed by the CCNOT team with any deviation discussed with the lead Consultant Paediatrician. Daily handovers from the medical teams were attended by a lead CCNOT member of the day to ensure that any referrals made were handed over verbally and any potential referrals during the day were anticipated. The handovers were also an opportunity to discuss the progress of any patient who remained under the care of the CCNOT. A structured patient satisfaction questionnaire was conducted with participants who were referred to CCNOT at the time of discharge. Hospital admissions between April 1, 2012 and September 30, 2013 from the Hospital Episode Statistics (HES) were obtained. HES is the national administrative database for hospital activity in England and contains data on all inpatient admissions in the National Health Service. Results The data collected shows activity from April 2012 to September 2013. The results of the pilot service for 1) average length of hospital stay (LOS) 2) Accident and Emergency (AE) admissions 2) non-elective admissions (NEL) 3) and readmissions are summarised in Table 1 comparing the period before CCNOT was implemented (April to September 2012) and the period after CCNOT was implemented (April to September 2013), during the same months of the year. The data showed that there were 28.3% referrals made from AE, 38.7% from inpatient ward, 11% from SSPAU, 8.9% from outpatient clinics, 12.5% from the regional tertiary centre and 0.6% from another district general hospital. The data indicates that following the implementation of the pilot, AE attendances had reduced by 5% per month, NEL admissions had reduced by 15.8%, readmissions had reduced by 17.3% and the overall LOS was increased by 2.3%. Figure 2 shows that there has been a 5% reduction in AE attendances since the introduction of the CCNOT team. NEL admissions was reduced by 15.8% a shown and although the drop in AE attendances will be reflected in the reduction in non-elective admissions, this will only account for 5% of the over 15% reduction. The readmission rate has significantly reduced by 17.3% since CCNOT service was implemented. The sources of referral overall were 28.3% from AE, 38.7% from inpatient wards, 11% from SSPAU, 8.9% from outpatient clinics, 12.5% from the regional children’s centre and 0.6% from other district general hospitals out of area. Overall patient satisfaction was very high and the results are shown in Table 2. Discussion CCNOT pilot service had a positive impact on the performance of the paediatric department in reducing Accident and Emergency admissions, reducing non-elective admissions and reducing readmissions. It was noted that there was a very slight increase of LOS by 2.3% which were noted to be an average of 0.88 days compared to 0.9 days which were not significant. The CCNOT service also improved the patient and family experience considerably from the results of the patient satisfaction survey. The confidence in CCNOT’s competence to safely manage acutely ill children athomeand secure rapid referral to the medical team if a childs condition deteriorated were supported by clear clinical pathways and the regular supervision given by the matron and Consultant Paediatricians. The effectiveness of hometreatment were evident from the results of the patent satisfaction survey. The National Service Framework for Diabetes have advised clinicians and Trusts to achieve current targets by providin g high quality care with novel strategies. One instrument to meet these challenges is the development of a paediatric community home nursing service with CCNOT teams as a service model of care in acute paediatrics in the face of reconfiguration of paediatric services. We have shown in this pilot service that CCNOT has been highly successful in achieving the targets for reducing length of hospital stay, reducing hospital admission from accident and emergency and improving overall patient satisfaction. CCNOT service compared to inpatient hospital stay have been found to be acceptable and preferable to parents and children although there is limited evidence about the clinical and cost-effectiveness of paediatric home care (Sartain et al. 2001, Spiers et al. 2011,Bagust et al. 2002). Concerns have also been raised that children’s emergency admissions in England may indicate that parents often bypass primary care when seeking care for their acutely ill child, perhaps due to lack of availability of out of hours services within primary care (Gibson et al. 2010) The option of referral to CCNOT provides care to children at home by nurses with paediatric training, and has the potential to avoid some onward referrals and preventable admissions. The CC NOT service may be further expanded to provide support within primary care service, however, within the remit of our pilot service specification, the current funding is not sufficient to allow coverage for the populations of GP referrals unless the number of WTE staff is further increased. The relative success of our CCNOT in securing high referrals suggests that an incremental approach to encourage GP referrals is likely to result in increased GP referral rates. This development must be underpinned by financial and organisational investment. In light of modern NHS in England, and in similar health systems, it is generally agreed that the main focus of paediatric acute services should be the care and support of vulnerable children and young people in the community and as close to home as possible (RCPCH 2009). Financial and organisational investment in the development of CCNOT in acute care pathways are a prerequisite for the success describe in this pilot scheme. It is anticipated that in the future, paediatric services will be delivered by consultants leading a team of trained doctors, nurses and health care professionals working within a multi-disciplinary and skill-mixed team delivering care in the community. Pressures in delivering acute paediatric care also relates to changes in the way junior doctors are trained and the recent years application of European Working Time Regulations have required an increase in numbers of trained doctors to provide 24/7 cover in hospital. This increase has sometimes been at the expen se high vacancy rates for medical staff and in particular a national shortage of middle grade paediatric medical doctors is experienced across England, Scotland and Wales (Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health 2011). There remains limited existing research on the cost effectiveness, development, design and distribution of CCNOT service across acute paediatric care in the UK. Conclusion Paediatric CCNOT service as a model of service delivery in in acute paediatric care is effective in reducing AE admissions, non-elective admissions and readmissions. It also significantly increases patient and carer satisfaction with care provision for sick children with appropriate conditions in the home environment. Our findings identify key factors that may inform the development of a CCNOT service in acute paediatric care to safely manage children at home. Relevance to clinical practice Delivering acute care within the community such as community home nursing service may reduce demand for unscheduled care and reduce the financial cost to the National Health Service in UK. Paediatric community home nursing service as a model of service delivery within acute paediatric care is effective in reducing AE admissions, non-elective admissions and readmissions. It significantly increases patient and carer satisfaction with care provision for sick children with appropriate conditions in the home environment. Paediatric community home nursing should be implemented with nurses trained in paediatrics and with clear clinical governance, pathways and robust documentation. References Bagust A, Haycox A, Sartain SA, Maxwell MJ, Todd P. Economic evaluation of an acute paediatric hospital at home clinical trial.Arch Dis Child.2002;87:489–492. Department of Health 2011; NHS at Home: Community Children’s Nursing Services. Gibson NP, Jelnek GA, Jiwa M, Lynch A-M. Paediatric frequent attenders at emergency departments: a linked-data population study.J Paediatr Child Heal.2010;46:723–728. Hall D, Sowden D. Primary care for children in the 21st century.BMJ.2005;330:430. Kyle RG,Banks M,Kirk S,Powell P,Callery P.Avoiding inappropriatepaediatricadmission: facilitating General Practitioner referral to Community Childrens Nursing Teams. BMC Family Practice2013 Jan 5;14:4 Sartain SA, Maxwell MJ, Todd PJ, Jones KH, Bagust A, Haycox A, Bundred P. Randomised controlled trial comparing an acute paediatric hospital at home scheme with conventional hospital care.Arch Dis Child.2002;87(5):371–375 Spiers G, Parker G, Gridley K, Atkin KP. The psychosocial experience of parents receiving care closer to home for their ill child.Health Soc Care Comm.2011;19(6):653–660 Supporting Paediatric Reconfiguration: A Framework for Standards RCPCH 2009 Sartain SA, Maxwell MJ, Todd PJ, Haycox AR, Bundred PE. Users’ views on hospital and home care for acute illness in childhood.Health Soc Care Comm.2001;9:108–117. Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health 2011 Medical Workforce Census Table 1: Outcomes Table 2. Results of the patient experience survey Number of responses: 33 (54% return) Legends: Figure 1: Referral pathway to CCNOT service Figure 2: AE Attendances April 2012-September 2013

Besseren lösungen für detaillierte problemfelder

Besseren là ¶sungen fà ¼r detaillierte problemfelder 1 Grundlagen des Benchmarking Benchmarking (BM) ist, in Ergà ¤nzung zum klassischen Unternehmensvergleich, durch das systematische Suchen nach rationellen Vorgehensweisen und besseren Là ¶sungen fà ¼r detaillierte Problemfelder und Prozesse außerhalb der „eigenen Welt bzw. der eigenen Branche gekennzeichnet. Nicht die Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen sind beim Benchmarking der Schwerpunkt der Untersuchung, sondern die gezielte Identifikation der besten Praktiken, mit denen à ¼berdurchschnittliche Wettbewerbspotentiale zu erreichen sind. Benchmarking wird entscheidend durch folgende Frage charakterisiert: „Warum machen es andere besser und was kà ¶nnen wir daraus lernen? Der Beweis der Durchfà ¼hrbarkeit neuer Ideen durch ihre tà ¤gliche Anwendung in anderen Unternehmen und die damit verbundene Motivation der eigenen Mitarbeiter ist ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des Benchmarking. Erst der Blick à ¼ber den eigenen Tellerrand ermà ¶glicht Leistungssprà ¼nge um Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸enordnungen. Damit erweist sich Benchmarking als ein Instrument zur Leistungssteigerung fà ¼r Unternehmen aus allen Branchen und gewinnt unter den Managementtechniken immer mehr an Bedeutung. Die flexiblen Einsatzmà ¶glichkeiten als „Werkzeug um verkrustete Unternehmensstrukturen aufzudecken oder als Instrument zum Aufzeigen der Optimierungsmà ¶glichkeiten von Geschà ¤ftsprozessen bis hin zur Entscheidungsunterstà ¼tzung bei Fragen der strategischen Ausrichtung machen das Benchmarking wertvoll. Benchmarking darf jedoch nicht als das Wundermittel zur Steigerung der eigenen Wettbewerbsfà ¤higkeit verstanden werden, denn insbesondere klein- und mittelgroße Unternehmen haben noch Schwierigkeiten bei der praktischen Umsetzung des Benchmarking. Das Neue des Benchmarking liegt im branchenà ¼bergreifenden Vergleich mit den Besten und dem Setzen von Maßstà ¤ben fà ¼r das eigene Unternehmen. Die Vorgehensweise des Benchmarking integriert dabei vorhandene Managementmethoden und bringt erst durch eine konsequente, ganzheitliche und kontinuierliche Anwendung den gewà ¼nschten Erfolg. Verschiedene Voraussetzungen sind dazu allerdings erforderlich (siehe Abb. 1): 1.1 Definition Benchmarking ist ein kontinuierlicher Prozeß, bei dem Produkte, Dienstleistungen und insbesondere Methoden betrieblicher Funktionen à ¼ber mehrere Unternehmen hinweg verglichen werden. Dabei sollen die Unterschiede zu anderen Unternehmen offengelegt, die Ursachen fà ¼r die Unterschiede und Mà ¶glichkeiten zur Verbesserung ermittelt werden. Der Vergleich findet dabei zu Unternehmen statt, welche die zu untersuchenden Methoden oder Prozesse hervorragend beherrschen. Diese Unternehmen werden dabei oft als „Klassenbeste best in class bezeichnet. (Vgl. Camp 1989, S.19). 1.2 Ziele des Benchmarking Benchmarking ist an erster Stelle ein Zielsetzungsprozeß. Aber, und das ist wichtiger, es ist ein Mittel, die Praktiken, die zum Erreichen neuer Ziele nà ¶tig sind, zu entdecken und zu verstehen. Diese sind wahrscheinlich das wichtigste und grundlegende Resultat des Benchmarking. Neben dem grundsà ¤tzlichen Ziel des Benchmarking, Vorgaben zu setzen, ist der motivierende Wert ebenfalls erheblich. Wenn Bechmarking voll integriert wird in die Verantwortlichkeiten, Arbeitsprozesse und das Vergà ¼tungssystem, wird die Organisation willens und fà ¤hig, sich aus eigenem Antrieb in Richtung realistischer Ziele zu bewegen und existierende Arbeitspraktiken zu à ¤ndern. Sie wird Maßnahmen ergreifen und Verà ¤nderungen herbeifà ¼hren, die sonst hà ¤tten diktiert werden mà ¼ssen. (Vgl. Camp 1994, S. 34). Benchmarking kann sich dabei auf verschiedene Objekte beziehen (siehe Abb.:2) 1.3 Nutzen des Benchmarking Es gibt viele Wege, den Nutzen zu beschreiben, der aus Bechmarking gezogen werden kann. Der wesentliche Vorteil wird abgeleitet von der Erfà ¼llung von Kundenwà ¼nschen, dem Setzen von Zielen, dem Messen der tatsà ¤chlichen Produktività ¤t, dem Erlangen der Wettbewerbsfà ¤higkeit und dem Sicherstellen, daß die besten Praktiken in den Arbeitsprozeß einbezogen sind. Es kann dabei prinzipiell ein direkter und ein indirekter Nutzen identifiziert werden (siehe Abb.: 3 und 4). 1.4 Entwicklung des Benchmarking 1.4.1 Die ersten Benchmarking-Untersuchungen Ganz neu ist der Ansatz des Benchmarking nicht. Zu Beginn dieses Jahrhunderts wurde vom deutschen Milità ¤r die erste bekannte Studie durchgefà ¼hrt. Man hatte erkannt, daß grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Truppenbewegungen sehr zeitaufwendig und kostenintensiv waren. Durch einen Zeitungsbericht erfuhr ein Soldat, daß es in Amerika einen großen Zirkus gibt, der es schaffte, in einer Nacht die Zelte abzubrechen, sà ¤mtliche Gà ¼ter auf die Bahn zu verladen und mit allen Menschen und Tieren per Bahn in die nà ¤chste Stadt aufzubrechen. Diese schier unglaubliche Leistung bewog das Milità ¤r mit einer Gruppe von Experten in die Vereinigten Staaten zu reisen um sich vor Ort ein Bild von diesem Vorgang zu machen. Es zeigte sich, daß der Zirkus neben einer kompetenten Logistikabteilung spezielle Fahrzeuge entwickelt hatte. Mit diesem Wissen konnte, zurà ¼ck in der Heimat, eine signifikante Verbesserung der Truppenbewegung umgesetzt werden. Die Einfà ¼hrung der ersten Fließbà ¤nder in der Automobilindustrie im Jahre 1916 ist ein weiteres Beispiel der frà ¼hen Anwendung von Bechmarking. Inspiriert durch Besuche einer Großschlachterei in Chicago, wo Schweinehà ¤lften an einer Hà ¤ngebahn von Arbeitsplatz zu Arbeitsplatz transportiert wurden, fà ¼hrte Henry Ford das Fließband in der Automobilindustrie ein. Das Kanban-System stellt ebenfalls eine à ¼bertragung eines Prinzips aus einer anderen Branche dar. Durch das Studium der Organisation amerikanischer Supermarktketten und hier insbesondere das Nachfà ¼llen der Regale entwickelte sich bei Toyota das Prinzip der Kanban-Karten, das heute in vielen Brachen Verbreitung gefunden hat. 1.4.2 Die Prà ¤gung des Begriffs durch Xerox Der Begriff Benchmarking wurde von Xerox im Jahr 1979 geprà ¤gt. Zu dieser Zeit stellte Xerox fest, daß die japanische Konkurrenz Kopierer zu einem Preis verkaufte, der unter den Produktionskosten bei Xerox lag. Xerox startete daraufhin im Fertigungsbereich ein marktbezogenes Benchmarking, das sogenannte Competitive Benchmarking. Die auf dem Markt befindlichen Kopierer wurden hinsichtlich Herstellungskosten, Design und anderer Merkmale studiert und analysiert. Aus diesem Vorgehen wurden neue radikale Ziele abgeleitet. Aufgrund des Erfolges in der Fertigung bestimmte das Management 1981, daß Benchmarking von allen Geschà ¤ftsbereichen durchzufà ¼hren sei. Noch im gleichen Jahr wurde ein branchenà ¼bergreifendes Benchmarking-Projekt in den Bereichen Logistik und Distribution durchgefà ¼hrt. Dies lieferte den endgà ¼ltigen Beweis, daß Benchmarking auch auf Geschà ¤ftsprozesse außerhalb der Produktion à ¼bertragbar ist und Benchmarking-Partner nicht aus der gleichen B ranche stammen mà ¼ssen. Besonders bemerkenswert, blickt man auf den Zeitpunkt Ende der 70er, Anfang der 80er Jahre, ist die Betrachtungsweise von Benchmarking als kontinuierlicher Prozeß. Dies ist eines der wesentlichen Probleme der Praxis. Wichtig ist, schon an dieser Stelle festzuhalten: Industrielle Prozesse unterliegen einem steten Wandel. Immer neue Verà ¤nderungen, Verbesserungen mà ¼ssen dokumentiert und eventuell in einen Benchmarking-Prozeß eingebunden werden. Eine einmalige, Im Hauruck-Verfahren durchgezogene Benchmarking-Aktion kann nicht erfolgreich sein. Robert C. Camp, Benchmarking-Projektleiter bei Xerox bemerkt dazu fast lapidar: „Verfahren mà ¼ssen kontinuierlich beobachtet werden, um sicher zu gehen, daß die wirklich besten ihrer Art ermittelt werden. Ausschließlich jene Unternehmen, die Benchmarking diszipliniert betreiben, werden sich hervorragend weiterentwickeln kà ¶nnen. In einer dem stà ¤ndigen Wandel unterworfenen Umwelt ist Selbstgefà ¤lligkeit fatal (Vgl. C amp 1989, S. 10). 1.5 Der Weg zum Benchmarking / Raus aus dem Controlling! Es gibt verschiedene Grà ¼nde weshalb Benchmarking als Hilfsmittel im Management nicht umfassend genutzt wird. Einer davon ist, daß Benchmarking funktional nicht zugeordnet werden kann. Als Basisinstrument hat es genauso eine Daseinsberechtigung in den Beschaffungs- und den Produktionsbereichen wie im strategischen Marketing oder in der Vertriebslogistik. In der Vergangenheit, war in der Betriebswirtschaft eine fortschreitende Trennung der Funktionalbereiche und ihrer Methodik zu verfolgen. Dies dokumentiert sich bis heute an den Lehrstà ¼hlen europà ¤ischer Wirtschaftshochschulen. Zumindest in Europa entdeckten zuerst die Controller das Hilfsmittel Benchmarking. Diese bereits geà ¼bt im Umgang mit einer Vielzahl von technischen Vergleichswerkzeugen erkannten schnell die Chancen, die die Arbeitstechnik erà ¶ffnete. „Benchmarking ist wichtiger Bestandteil des Instrumentenkastens des zunehmend strategisch orientierten Controllers, schreiben dann auch Horvath und Herter (1992, S.7). Sicher ist es sinnvoll, Benchmarking erst einmal im Controlling anzusiedeln. Der Controller kann anregen, kann Hilfestellungen im Umgang mit verschiedenen Werkzeugen geben, dennoch wird er à ¼ber die nachtrà ¤gliche à ¼berprà ¼fung und Vergleichsrechnung, den Denk- und Kreativprozeß des Benchmarking auf der Management-Schiene nicht ersetzen. Anders als beispielsweise im Target Costing, kann das Controlling sinnvolles Benchmarking nur anregen, stimulieren, nicht jedoch konkrete Zielvorgaben bereitstellen, an denen sich die jeweiligen Funktionsbereiche frei orientieren kà ¶nnen. Im Benchmarking geht es um das Vorausdenken, nicht um das Nachrechnen! Das ist die elementare Botschaft! Und dementsprechend kann die Technik im aktuellen Arbeitsprozeß von allen Funktionsbereichen genutzt werden; egal ob das Marketing seine Feldorganisation à ¼berprà ¼ft, die Produktion bestimmte Montageschritte unter die Lupe nimmt, die Beschaffung den Prozeß der Auftragsvergabe nà ¤her beleuchtet. Fà ¼r all diese Aufgabenstellungen genà ¼gt es nicht, einen Controller aus dem Vergleich entwickelte Zielwerte vorgeben zu lassen. Benchmarking ist ein dialogisches Instrument, das die Leistung aller Mitarbeiter aus den Funktionalbereichen beansprucht (Vgl. Rau, 1996, S. 63). 2 Formen des Benchmarking Prinzipiell kà ¶nnen drei Formen des Benchmarking unterschieden werden, die im europà ¤ischen Rahmen Verwendung finden (sieh Abb.: 5). Das Benchmarking von Unternehmen ist bislang am weitesten verbreitet. Hier lernen Unternehmen voneinander, vergleichen Kennzahlen und tauschen sich à ¼ber die Objekte des Benchmarking aus. Beim Benchmarking von Sektoren wird die Leistungsfà ¤higkeit einzelner Sektoren gegenà ¼bergestellt. Ziel ist es, von anderen Sektoren, die nach ausgewà ¤hlten Kriterien besser erscheinen, zu lernen. Das Benchmarking von Rahmenbedingungen gewinnt insbesondere vor dem Hintergrund der Europà ¤ischen Union eine neue Qualità ¤t. Hierbei sollen in Zukunft z.B. politische, gesellschaftliche oder wirtschaftliche Rahmenbedingungen miteinander verglichen werden, so daß ganze Là ¤nder in die Lage versetzt werden voneinander zu lernen. Im folgenden wird das Benchmarking von Unternehmen nà ¤her beleuchtet, das wiederum in die beiden Klassen internes und externes Benchmarking aufgeteilt werden kann. 2.1 Internes Benchmarking Internes Benchmarking stellt die einfachste Form des Benchmarking dar, da es keinerlei Beschrà ¤nkungen von außen zu beachten gibt. Beim internen Benchmarking versuchen Organisationen, von ihren eigenen Strukturen zu lernen. Es werden à ¤hnliche Ablà ¤ufe untersucht und à ¼ber unterschiedliche Bereiche hinweg miteinander verglichen, um detaillierte Informationen à ¼ber das zur Verfà ¼gung stehende Leistungspotential zu erhalten. Beim internen Benchmarking richtet sich der Blick des Management nach innen. Es gilt aktuelle Arbeitsablà ¤ufe und Praktiken objektiv zu erfassen und diese transparent zu machen. Dadurch erhà ¤lt man die nà ¶tigen Details, um die Ressourcen gezielt auf diejenigen Aspekte zu konzentrieren, die einer à ¤nderung bedà ¼rfen. Hà ¤ufig wird ein internes Benchmarking genutzt, um mit der Methode vertraut zu werden und dieses Wissen fà ¼r ein externes Benchmarking zu nutzen. 2.1.1 Unternehmensbezogenes Benchmarking Innerhalb eines Unternehmens ist es mà ¶glich à ¤hnliche Prozesse zu finden, die man vergleichen kann. Diese Prozesse sind gekennzeichnet durch technologische, organisatorische und personelle Einflà ¼sse und richten sich z.B. auf Zweigwerke oder Abteilungen. 2.1.2 Konzernbezogenes Benchmarking Diese Technik wird eingesetzt beim Vergleich von mehreren Werken oder Unternehmensteilen innerhalb eines Konzerns. Es kann hierdurch die beste Praxis innerhalb der Organisation identifiziert werden und ermà ¶glicht so die klare Identifikation von Schwachstellen. Die Vergleichsmà ¶glichkeiten sind im Gegensatz zum unternehmensbezogenen Benchmarking hà ¶her und stellen damit prinzipiell ein grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸eres Potential dar. Konzernbezogenes Benchmarking eignet sich insbesondere fà ¼r eine objektive, fundierte Vorbereitung eines externen Benchmarking, fà ¼r eine Bestandsaufnahme und zur Verbesserung der Mitarbeiterkommunikation und -motivation. 2.2 Externes Benchmarking Benchmarking ist insbesondere eine Technik, um nach außen zu blicken, wobei ein Vergleich der Praktiken des eigenen Unternehmens mit unternehmensexternen Praktiken vorgenommen wird. Vergleich bedeutet, daß eine Grundlinie der à ¤hnlichkeiten vorhanden sein muß. Diese à ¤hnlichkeiten mà ¼ssen vor dem Benchmarking genau identifiziert werden. Erst dann sind ein gà ¼ltiger Vergleich und die Identifizierung von Verbesserungschancen mà ¶glich (Vgl. Mertins, 1993). Eine grà ¼ndliche Vorbereitung hilft, die beim externen Benchmarking hà ¤ufig anzutreffenden Skeptiker produktiv werden zu lassen. 2.2.1 Marktbezogenes Benchmarking Die Konkurrenzanalyse ist als ein Instrument anzusehen, das Informationen à ¼ber die derzeitigen und zukà ¼nftigen Marktaktività ¤ten der Konkurrenz, deren Stà ¤rken und Schwà ¤chen sowie deren mà ¶gliche Reaktionen auf Marktverà ¤nderungen liefert. Sie là ¤ÃƒÅ¸t einen Vergleich mit Unternehmen zu, die die jeweiligen Unternehmensaktività ¤ten in hervorragender Weise beherrschen, blickt jedoch nicht à ¼ber das Umfeld der direkten Konkurrenz hinaus. Mit dem Marktbezogenen Benchmarking ist es mà ¶glich von der Konkurrenz zu lernen, Verbesserungen einzuleiten und die Marktsituation objektiv im Auge zu behalten. Die externen Anstà ¶ÃƒÅ¸e verhindern die Neigung zur Selbstzufriedenheit und Bà ¼rokratisierung, die in allen Organisationen vorkommt und unterstà ¼tzt so die à ¼berzeugung, daß man immer zumindest ein wenig besser werden kann. Ein wesentlicher Unterschied zwischen einer reinen Konkurrenzanalyse und Benchmarking ist darin zu sehen, daß ein unmittelbarer Informationsaustausch zwischen den Unternehmen etabliert und ein gegenseitiger Lernprozeß initiiert wird. Problematisch dabei ist in der Regel die zu à ¼berwindende Verschlossenheit von Konkurrenten untereinander. Der sogenannte Benchmarking-Verhaltenskodex gibt hierzu zwar Verhaltensregeln, in der Praxis ist es jedoch meist schwer das Konstruktive Gesprà ¤ch aufzunehmen. 2.2.2 Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking geht à ¼ber den bloßen Vergleich zweier Firmen hinaus und hat seinen Schwerpunkt in der Suche nach Trends. Es untersucht also die Leistungsfà ¤higkeit einer bestimmten Funktion in branchenweiter Ausprà ¤gung. Dazu ist es notwendig, eine weit grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Gruppe von Unternehmen zu untersuchen, als dies beim konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking der Fall ist. Branchenbezogenes Benchmarking sucht nach Trends statt nach Wettbewerbspositionen und dient zur Leistungsanalyse von Subsystemen. Die Grenzen zum konkurrenzbezogenen Benchmarking sind jedoch fließend, so daß es kein klares Differenzierungsmerkmal gibt, wo eine zielgerichtete Studie aufhà ¶rt und die Trendforschung beginnt. Der wesentliche Vorteil des Branchenbezogenen Benchmarking gegenà ¼ber dem marktbezogenen, ist darin zu sehen, daß keine unmittelbare Wettbewerbssituation besteht, da auf anderen Mà ¤rkten agiert wird. Somit gestaltet sich der Informationstransfer meist offener. Da di e Unternehmen aus der gleichen Branche sind, gibt es jedoch beim Vergleich von Prozessen viele à ¤hnliche Merkmale, was fà ¼r ein erfolgreiches Benchmarking unumgà ¤nglich ist. 2.2.3 Branchenunabhà ¤ngiges Benchmarking Der Schlà ¼ssel zum langfristigen Erfolg im Wettbewerb ist nicht Gleichheit, sondern à ¼berlegenheit. Man mà ¶chte die beste Praxis, wie sie gegenwà ¤rtig existiert einholen und dann à ¼berholen. Deshalb richtet sich Benchmarking an den Besten aus. à ¼ber Branchen hinweg wird nach neuen, innovativen Praktiken, unabhà ¤ngig von ihrer Quelle gesucht. Es geht darum, die besten Praktiken zu finden und zu nutzen, um die vorhandenen Praktiken innerhalb der eigenen Organisation innovativ zu verà ¤ndern. Erfolg an externen Kriterien zu definieren, bedeutet eine Vorstellung von Bestleistung zu entwickeln und das Unternehmen auf ein neues Leistungsniveau zu heben. Benchmarking am Klassenbesten beruht auf der à ¼berzeugung, daß der Prozeß der Wertschà ¶pfung à ¼ber viele unterschiedliche Institutionen hinweg auf à ¤hnlichen Merkmalen beruht. Branchenunabhà ¤ngiges Bechmarking ist zwingend Benchmarking von Geschà ¤ftsprozessen. Voraussetzung ist daher eine klare Definition des zu vergleichenden Prozesses. Bereits wà ¤hrend der Definitionsphase erkennt das Projektteam oft erste Schwachpunkte und kann Maßnahmen zur Verbesserung ableiten. Dies wirkt besonders motivierend auf die Beteiligten. 2.3 Zusammenfassender Vergleich In der folgenden Abb.:6 sind die Vor- und Nachteile der Arten des Unternehmens-Benchmarking zusammengefaßt (Vgl. Pieske, 1994). 3 Die Phasen des Benchmarking Der Benchmarking-Prozeß besteht prinzipiell aus fà ¼nf Kernphasen (Abb.: 7). In der tà ¤glichen Benchmarking Praxis kà ¶nnen diese Kernphasen um unternehmensspezifische Schwerpunkte erweitert werden. 3.1 Zielsetzung Ausgangspunkt des Benchmarking ist die Zielsetzungsphase. Hier wird der Fokus des Benchmarking-Projekts festgelegt. Diese Phase ist fà ¼r den gesamten weiteren Prozeß von entscheidender Bedeutung, da Fehler oder mangelnde Sorgfalt das Ergebnis verfà ¤lschen oder unbrauchbar machen. Es ist wichtig, das Management schon in dieser Phase einzubinden, da die sichtbare Unterstà ¼tzung und die aktive Begleitung der Benchmarking Projekte durch das obere Management wà ¤hrend aller Projektphasen ein Schlà ¼sselfaktor fà ¼r das Gelingen des Benchmarkings ist. Jedes Benchmarking-Projekt sollte einem strukturierten und formalisierten Ablauf folgen. Dadurch kà ¶nnen Meilensteine vereinbart und Ergebnisse besser kontrolliert werden. Im à ¼brigen sind Reihenfolge und Inhalte der Prozeßschritte fà ¼r die Beteiligten leichter nachzuvollziehen. Ausgangspunkt fà ¼r die Bestimmung der Benchmarking-Ziele sind die strategischen Ziele des Unternehmens. Diese Ziele werden bei der Festlegung der Benchmarking-Ziele mit eingearbeitet. Sind die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projektes festgelegt, gilt es, das Benchmarking-Objekt genau abzugrenzen und die Benchmarking-Art festzulegen. Der Zielfindungsprozeß, der am besten in Form eines Workshops erfolgt, kann mit Hilfe verschiedener Techniken unterstà ¼tzt werden (sieh Abb.: 8). Bei einem Zielworkshop sollten zwischen vier und zehn Personen beteiligt sein. Dies sind beim Benchmarking Vertreter des Management, die Prozeß-Eigner und zumindest ein Moderator. Zunà ¤chst schreibt jeder Teilnehmer die Ziele des Benchmarking-Projekts auf Moderationskarten, wobei darauf geachtet werden soll, daß jede Karte nur ein Ziel enthà ¤lt, dieses mà ¶glichst prà ¤gnant und verstà ¤ndlich formuliert und gut leserlich geschrieben ist. Fà ¼nf bis sieben Karten pro Teilnehmer sollten in der Regel ausreichen, da sonst zu viele Ziele generiert werden und eine Strukturierung schwerfà ¤llt. Nach einigen Minuten werden vom Moderator bereits die ersten Karten eingesammelt und gemischt, damit nicht klar erkenntlich ist, von wem welches Ziel formuliert wurde. Die eingesammelten Karten werden an einer Moderationstafel fà ¼r alle Teilnehmer sichtbar angepint. Dies dient nicht zuletzt dazu, daß die Teilnehmer die Mà ¶glichkeit haben, in welche Richtung die anderen Teilnehmer denken und daraus Anregungen fà ¼r weitere Ziele bekommen. Nach etwa weiteren zehn Minuten werden die Teilnehmer sofern diese noch vereinzelt Ziele definieren gebeten, die letzten Ziele zu formulieren. Daraufhin werden auch diese Karten eingesammelt, gemischt und angepint. Nachdem alle Karten an der Tafel hà ¤ngen, werden die Ziele vom Moderator langsam vorgelesen und die Teilnehmer werden gebeten, bei Unklarheiten sofort nachzufragen. In solch einem Falle wird der Kartenautor gebeten, kurz das Ziel zu beschreiben und es wird bei Bedarf im Team eine neue Formulierung entwickelt, die auf einer neuen Karte vom Moderator niedergeschrieben wird. Falls sich einzelne Ziele auf mehreren Karten wiederfinden, wird im Diskussionsprozeß die treffendste Zielformulierung ausgewà ¤hlt und die anderen Karten werden verworfen. Bevor eine Karte verworfen wird, muß jedoch in jedem Fall der Autor gefragt werden, ob er damit einverstanden ist. Nach dieser Runde sollten alle Ziele fà ¼r alle Beteiligten klar verstà ¤ndlich sein und es kann mit der Strukturierung begonnen werden. Dazu wird zunà ¤chst das Oberziel identifiziert und an einer separaten Tafel befestigt. Gemeinsam mit den Teilnehmern wird nun eine Zielhierarchie erarbeitet, was in der Regel die schwierigste Phase des Zielworkshops darstellt. Hierbei wird den Teilnehmern nicht nur der Zusammenhang der verschiedenen Ziele deutlich, sondern auch deren Priorisierung (Vgl. Heisig, 1996). 3.2 Interne Analyse Die interne Analyse ist in den meisten Projekten die zeitintensivste Phase des Benchmarking. Nach einer Untersuchung von 3M werden hier ca. 45% der gesamten Projektlaufzeit benà ¶tigt (siehe Abb.: 9). In dieser Phase wird die Grundlage fà ¼r das Verstà ¤ndnis der eigenen Prozesse gelegt und bereits erste Stà ¤rken und Verbesserungspotentiale aufgedeckt. 3.2.1 Geschà ¤ftsprozesse und ihre Beschreibung Unter einem Geschà ¤ftsprozeß ist ein Ablauf zu verstehen, der im allgemeinen Sinn Objekte verarbeitet bzw. transformiert. Die Objekte, die zur Beschreibung der Geschà ¤ftsprozesse eines Unternehmens verwendet werden sind Produkt, Auftrag und Ressource. Produkte sind die konkreten Gà ¼ter und Dienstleistungen, die das Unternehmen an den Kunden liefert bzw. die Materialien, Rohstoffe und Dienstleistungen, die zur Produkt- bzw. Serviceerstellung verwendet werden (Zulieferprodukte). Auftrà ¤ge veranlassen die Durchfà ¼hrung von Aktionen. Grà ¶ÃƒÅ¸ere Unternehmen unterscheiden meistens mehrere Arten von Auftrà ¤gen, z.B. Werkstattauftrà ¤ge, in denen Produkte aus mehreren Kundenauftrà ¤gen, gefertigt werden. Ressourcen sind alle Betriebsmittel, die fà ¼r die Produkt- oder Serviceherstellung benà ¶tigt werden. Dies kà ¶nnen Maschinen, Werkzeuge und Transportmittel, aber auch Personen sein. Auch Informationen kà ¶nnen Ressourcen sein, wenn man beispielsweise an Zeichnungen denkt, in denen angegeben ist, wie ein Produkt zusammengebaut werden soll. Diesen drei Objektarten ist gemeinsam, daß sich ihr Zustand durch die Bearbeitung à ¤ndert. Die Bearbeitung selbst wird durch die Aktion, die vierte Objektart dargestellt. Mit diesen vier Objektarten ist es mà ¶glich, Geschà ¤ftsprozesse einheitlich zu beschreiben. Gerichtete Pfeile geben an, in welcher Reihenfolge Objekte verà ¤ndert werden. 3.2.2 Informationen, die aus einem Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell gewonnen werden kà ¶nnen Ein Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell kann Ausgangspunkt fà ¼r weitere Untersuchungen, Vergleiche und Verbesserungen sein. Sinnvolle Fragestellungen betreffen die Effizienz der dargestellten Prozesse. Einige Beispiele: Wie oft werden Angebote à ¼berarbeitet? Gilt der dargestellte Ablauf fà ¼r alle Auftragsarten? Welche Durchlaufzeit ergibt sich fà ¼r die einzelnen Phasen eines Geschà ¤ftsprozesses? Lassen sich Ablà ¤ufe parallel durchfà ¼hren? Das Geschà ¤ftsprozeßmodell ist daher Diskussionsgrundlage fà ¼r die Mitglieder des Benchmarking-Teams und trà ¤gt somit bereits zu mehr Transparenz bei. Den Abschluß dieser Phase bildet die Formulierung eines Fragekatalogs. Diese Fragen beziehen sich auf das Gesamtprojekt und seine Einbindung, Teilaspekte bzw. Prozesse, Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en sowie die Praktikabilità ¤t von im Rahmen der internen Analyse erkannten Optimierungsmà ¶glichkeiten des Benchmarking-Objekts. Die genaue Definition der Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en stellt dabei einen wesentlichen Schritt zur Gewà ¤hrleistung der Vergleichbarkeit dar. Die Benchmarking-Praxis zeigt allerdings, daß gleiche Begriffe nicht nur in verschiedenen Unternehmen, sondern innerhalb eines Unternehmens hà ¤ufig unterschiedlich verstanden werden. Der Fragebogen dient jedoch nicht nur zur Sammlung der Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en bei potentiellen Vergleichsunternehmen, sondern là ¤ÃƒÅ¸t die angesprochenen Unternehmen auch erkennen, ob ein Benchmarking mit ihnen sinnvoll erscheint. Bei der Formulierung der Fragen sollte man darauf achten, daß Die Fragen allgemeinverstà ¤ndlich sind Die genaue Definition von Meßgrà ¶ÃƒÅ¸en enthalten ist Der Grund fà ¼r die Erhebung klar wird 3.3 Die Vergleichsphase In dieser Phase stehen die Auswahl von Vergleichsunternehmen und der Vergleich der Objekte, hier die Prozesse, im Vordergrund. Eine besondere Schwierigkeit dieser Phase ist es, Partner zu finden, die bereit sind, sich offen auszutauschen und damit in einen gegenseitigen Lernprozeß einzusteigen. Dies bedeutet, daß der Partner einen vergleichbaren Prozeß bzw. Prozeßabschnitt in seinem Unternehmen etabliert hat, bei diesem Prozeß zumindest in Teilaspekten besser ist und zur Teilnahme bereit ist. Der Auswahlprozeß des geeigneten Partners gliedert sich in eine Generierungs- und eine sich anschließende Selektionsphase. Ziel der Generierungsphase ist es, mà ¶glichst viele unterschiedliche, potentielle Benchmarking-Partner zu finden, wozu prinzipiell verschiedene Vorgehensweisen geeignet sind (siehe Abb.:12) In der Praxis bietet sich immer eine Kombination der unterschiedlichen Methoden an. So werden im Benchmarking-Team Vorschlà ¤ge in Form eines Brainstormings erarbeitet, wà ¤hrend parallel jedes Mitglied aufgefordert ist, à ¼ber die Literatur und à ¼ber Preistrà ¤ger an relevante Informationen zu kommen. Aufgabe der Selektionsphase ist die Verdichtung der vorhandenen Informationen anhand von Bewertungskriterien. Die Selektionsphase stà ¼tzt sich auf die bereits beschriebenen Informationsquellen sowie auf Fragebogenaktionen und Telefoninterviews bei Benchmarking-Partnern. Zu den Bewertungskriterien gehà ¶ren Gà ¼te, Qualità ¤t und Vergleichbarkeit des Benchmarking-Objektes, die Professionalità ¤t des potentiellen Vergleichpartners und eine Gewichtung in Abhà ¤ngigkeit von der Zielsetzung. Weiter ist auch nach Aspekten wie Mà ¶glichkeit, Aufwand und Nutzen der Datenbeschaffung, der à ¼berprà ¼fbarkeit und Interpretationsmà ¶glichkeit der Daten sowie der daraus resultierenden Ergebnisse auszuwà ¤hlen. Wirtschaftliche Parameter und das Image des Partnerunternehmen sind von untergeordneter Bedeutung, sollten aber in der Bewertung berà ¼cksichtigt werden. Nach Abschluß des Selektionsprozesses werden in der Regel acht bis zwà ¶lf Unternehmen zur ersten Kontaktaufnahme ausgew à ¤hlt. Abschließend findet Priorisierung der ausgewà ¤hlten Vergleichsunternehmen statt. Ergebnis ist eine Auflistung der Auswahlpartner in Rangfolge. Sie dient der Reihenfolge der Ansprache von Vergleichsunternehmen. Die Herausforderung wà ¤hrend der Durchfà ¼hrung des eigentlichen Vergleichs besteht darin, den Vergleichsprozeß wirklich zu verstehen, seine Stà ¤rken zu erkennen und die Wirkungszusammenhà ¤nge zu begreifen. Hilfreich dabei sind Kennzahlen, die eine Gegenà ¼berstellung vereinfachen, eine Modellierung, die den Prozeß schnell verstà ¤ndlich macht und ein Fragebogen an den Partner, anhand dessen er sich in die Problematik einarbeiten und fà ¼r den Austausch vorbereiten kann. Der persà ¶nliche Austausch von Informationen ist jedoch durch keine Kennzahlen oder Prozeßmodellierungen zu ersetzen. Gerade beim Zusammentreffen der Benchmarking-Partner, der am besten bei einem der beiden Partner und nicht auf neutralem Boden stattfinden sollte, werden Informationen ausgetauscht, die sich schwer in Worte fassen lassen. Hier findet das eigentliche gegenseitige Lernen statt. Fà ¼r die Prozeßbewertung kà ¶nnen die Leistungsparameter der Prozesse herangezogen werden. Diese mà ¼ssen jedoch relativiert werden, da bei der Gegenà ¼berstellung von Zahlen stets die interne Situation und die Umwelt der Benchmarking-Partner berà ¼cksichtigt werden mà ¼ssen, also die Voraussetzungen und Randbedingungen, unter denen die Ergebnisse erzielt wurden. Nicht die bloßen Zahlen sind zu betrachten, sondern die Geschà ¤ftsprozesse hinter den Zahlen mà ¼ssen verstanden werden. Bezogen auf den eigenen Prozeß muß bestimmt werden, welche Praktiken geeignet sind, die gesetzten Ziele zu erreichen, und welche Mà ¶glichkeiten sich durch die à ¼bertragung ergeben. Dazu sind die Ursachen in den Leistungsunterschieden zu analysieren. Nur wenn die tatsà ¤chlichen Grà ¼nde identifiziert werden, kà ¶nnen à ¼ber den reinen Vergleich hinaus die unterschiedlichen Potentiale der verschiedenen Prozesse aufgedeckt, die Realisierbarkeit bewertet und zukà ¼nftige Entwick lungen vorausgesagt werden. Das Ergebnis der Vergleichsphase ist die Kombination der bezà ¼glich der einzelnen Teilaspekte des Benchmarking-Objektes am besten erachteten Praktiken und Parameter. Man erhà ¤lt bezogen auf den untersuchten Geschà ¤ftsprozeß die bei den verschiedenen Benchmarking-Partnern erkannten besten Praktiken, da kein einzelnes Unternehmen fà ¼r sich in Anspruch nehmen kann, in allen Belangen fà ¼hrend zu sein. 3.4 Ableitung von Maßnahmen Die Aufgabe des Benchmarking-Teams besteht darin, die Resultate aus den Analysen dem Management, den F

Influences and Reality Essay -- Media Magazines Society Beauty Essays

Influences and Reality As adults do we tend to read the styles we've grown up with? Do we find ourselves subscribing to and reaching for magazines in the checkout line that our parents read? I do. As I become more independent I see subtle changes in the styles around me but find myself grounded in what my parents, my brothers and my environment have familiarized me with. Strewn around me are volumes of "Outdoor Life", "Prevention", "Better Homes and Gardens", "Midwest Living", "Vogue" and "Masonry Construction." A magazine to satisfy many interests, each containing pieces of my life. You will not find "Time" or "Forbes" in my hands unless I have research to do in them for school. I am not familiar with politics, big business or urban life and I find the style dull. I can't convince myself to pick up political magazines for pleasure. Richard Lanham in Revising Prose says, " A style that at first seems peculiar may not be a "bad "style but simply eloquent about an unexpected kind of reality, one that you may or may not like" (106). I read styles that are my reality and though some may not find "eloquence" in "Masonry Construction", I do. You may guess that someone in my family is involved in construction and wonder why I read such literature if it is not my career. As the daughter of a brick and stone mason I have grown up listening to my dad talk construction and have always been interested in what he does. Though "construction" doesn't have a soft tone to it, possibly not possessing "eloquence" , writing about it and the finished product can. Articles in "Masonry Construction" explicate the fine details of this labor through straightforward writing and a calm informative voice. I can "hear" my dad explaining the qualiti... ... I used to think it was funny and at a young age believed some of it; not to be fooled now. I used to read it for pleasure but since I started working with womens' and mens' clothing I've become interested in what is new in the world of fashion, the fabrics and styles. The writing style in "Vogue" and similar magazines is classy and fast paced (if writing can be that). The catwalk and thumping techno music seems to be in front of my eyes. For a while I find it interesting and exhilarating but soon find myself wanting to return to the country. I find that the styles strewn about me are influenced by my parents style; conservative, down to earth, knowing the importance of physical labor to make a living and seeing the beauty in what has been offered to us-where we live and what we've experienced. This is how I was raised and I will continue to live in this style. Influences and Reality Essay -- Media Magazines Society Beauty Essays Influences and Reality As adults do we tend to read the styles we've grown up with? Do we find ourselves subscribing to and reaching for magazines in the checkout line that our parents read? I do. As I become more independent I see subtle changes in the styles around me but find myself grounded in what my parents, my brothers and my environment have familiarized me with. Strewn around me are volumes of "Outdoor Life", "Prevention", "Better Homes and Gardens", "Midwest Living", "Vogue" and "Masonry Construction." A magazine to satisfy many interests, each containing pieces of my life. You will not find "Time" or "Forbes" in my hands unless I have research to do in them for school. I am not familiar with politics, big business or urban life and I find the style dull. I can't convince myself to pick up political magazines for pleasure. Richard Lanham in Revising Prose says, " A style that at first seems peculiar may not be a "bad "style but simply eloquent about an unexpected kind of reality, one that you may or may not like" (106). I read styles that are my reality and though some may not find "eloquence" in "Masonry Construction", I do. You may guess that someone in my family is involved in construction and wonder why I read such literature if it is not my career. As the daughter of a brick and stone mason I have grown up listening to my dad talk construction and have always been interested in what he does. Though "construction" doesn't have a soft tone to it, possibly not possessing "eloquence" , writing about it and the finished product can. Articles in "Masonry Construction" explicate the fine details of this labor through straightforward writing and a calm informative voice. I can "hear" my dad explaining the qualiti... ... I used to think it was funny and at a young age believed some of it; not to be fooled now. I used to read it for pleasure but since I started working with womens' and mens' clothing I've become interested in what is new in the world of fashion, the fabrics and styles. The writing style in "Vogue" and similar magazines is classy and fast paced (if writing can be that). The catwalk and thumping techno music seems to be in front of my eyes. For a while I find it interesting and exhilarating but soon find myself wanting to return to the country. I find that the styles strewn about me are influenced by my parents style; conservative, down to earth, knowing the importance of physical labor to make a living and seeing the beauty in what has been offered to us-where we live and what we've experienced. This is how I was raised and I will continue to live in this style.

Religion in Public Schools :: Prayer in Public Schools

Religion in the Classroom In the past Religion was confined to the state now with religious freedom everything has changed or at least started to change. In order for religion to be in a private school now it is again trying to be in Public schools. People ask "why can't freedom to acknowledge god be enjoyed again by children in every schoolroom across this land?" In the past, a long time ago children always prayed before class started and before lunch. But things have changed, "in 1791 the separation of church and state" started. Although it was made clear about the separation of the two "as late as 1951 some twenty states permitted schools to begin the day by reading aloud a passage of the bible." Bu t that had to stop. People didn't have the same beliefs when it comes to religion, if a family absent even believe in god why should their child be forced to pray? On many different occasions questions similar to this one were brought up and complained about. That is what started it all real big. When complaining, arguing and fighting all started over the silent moment. In 1978 a few lawyers got together and considered a constitutional law. The original law said that public school teachers in gr ades 1-6 "shall announce that a period of silence, not to exceed one minute, shall be observed for meditation." This law did not work for long, because it still allowed oral prayer in public high schools. Later in 1981, the Alabama State Senator D onald G. Holmes successfully passed a bill that included all grades calling it "the moment of silence" this law said that "the teacher (was) to announce that the silent moment may be used for voluntary prayer." Although it would have to be si lent prayer. Even after this new law started the lawyers that were opposed to this were trying to say that students "do not have a right to pray in school" silently or otherwise because of growing impressions that affect their life. The silent mom ent supposedly "(forced) religion on children." I don't agree with that at all, if there has to be a moment of silence then any child can use that moment however he or she wants, it does not necessarily have to be used fro prayer. Usually "the chi ldren who have been brought up with prayer or some type of religion are usually proven to be better" kids.

Dr Pepper Snapple Group, Inc. Essay

The problem associated with this case is whether or not the company should introduce a new energy beverage brand into the market. If a profitable market opportunity exists for the company to enter the energy beverage market the next step would be to identify a target market and marketing mix along with a product line and brand positioning. The best opportunity for the company to gain market share is to target adult energy drinkers from ages 35 to 54 since none of the competitors are catering towards this segment. Bottlers, distributors, and retailers are unlikely to produce and stock more than two SKUs of a new energy drink brand so it would be best to introduce a regular 16ounce single-serve package that consists of two different flavors. Since regular energy beverages hold 80% share of the market selecting regular is best, and since the 16ounce energy drinks represent 50% of case sales in convenience stores and want a high turnover to maintain prevalence in convenience stores its best to go with a 16ounce size. Also having two different flavors to choose from will help increase chance of trial rather than have only one flavor and have regular and sugar free or have one flavor and two different sizes. In positioning the brand the company should differentiate the energy drink from competitors by basis of packaging and select the 16.9ounce single-serve aluminum bottle with a resealable screw cap, and also by ingredients in having lower carbohydrates in the formulation. The energy brand should be distributed to all types of off-premise retailers where beverages are sold for maximum sales. The company’s U.S. media expenditure should be $12.6 million, equal to that of Tag Energy’s U.S. media expenditure which lead to a 2.3% dollar market share, because Tag Energy was also new to the energy beverage market and targeted to a certain demographic the company should experience a similar result. The manufacturer’s suggested retail selling price should be $2.29. Higher than the average $2.00 per single-serve because of it’s unique  point of difference – lower carbohydrates and aluminum bottle with resealable screw cap. Market sales potential for the company’s target market is equal to $1.608 (Exhibit 1) billion and market sales forecast is equal to $133.202 million (Exhibit 2). With a retail trade margin equal to 40% the company’s selling price to retailers would be $.961 (Exhibit 3). Thus from the market sales forecast of $133.202 million the company would receive $79.921 million in revenue, and with the company’s contribution margin of 30% total profit would be equal to $22.378 million (Exhibit 4).

Ethical Standards and the conflict in schools

Educators function as a member of a squad and have a particular relationship with pupils, parents, other school forces, and the community. The quality of these relationships depends non merely on the work performed, but besides on the ethical behaviour demonstrated on the occupation. Educators are faced with ethical issues on a day-to-day footing, including confidentiality, record direction, and the demands placed upon them with the duty of learning pupils and pull offing a schoolroom. Educators frequently face state of affairss where their ain involvements, a pupil ‘s involvement, or the school ‘s involvement may conflict. Ethical criterions help us to go more cognizant of the right class of action with respect to a assortment of positions instead than our ain. Educators are obligated to be as to the full prepared as possible to work ethically, every bit good as lawfully, in the school environment at all times. Ethical criterions supply a model for reflecting on appropriate behaviour. For this assignment, I have researched four articles that address legal and ethical deductions on schoolroom direction in respects to the rights and duties of pupils, parents, and instructors. I will reflect, place, and sum up each article. Finally, I will reason with how these articles have made a difference in how I will pull off my schoolroom. Article 1 The article that I began with is Public school Law: Teachers ‘ and pupil ‘s rights by Martha McCarthy. McCarthy discusses the legal rights of the instructor and the pupil. The Negligent Tort Law shows that instructors may be considered apt if he or she could hold â€Å" foreseen and prevented hurt by exerting proper attention † ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . The first component of the Negligent Tort Law states that the responsibility to protect is the duty of the instructor – this responsibility includes all necessary safeguards to protect pupils that are under their supervising ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . Subsequently, if a pupil hurt could hold been anticipated or foreseeable by the instructor and they did non supply sensible supervising of the incident, so, carelessness on the instructor ‘s behalf has occurred ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . Yet, if a pupil ‘s action or consequence of a pupil ‘s hapless picks contribu ted to the hurt, so the incident itself is considered conducive carelessness, and the instructor is no longer apt ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . In happening carelessness on a instructor ‘s behalf, one must see the mature and developmentally appropriate behaviour. There are many factors that have to be taken into consideration overall when a negligent claim is filed. Some of such factors are the instructor ‘s enfranchisement, the instructor ‘s preparation, the environment in which the hurt occurred, the instructional activity, and the care of the equipment ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . How the jurisprudence is stated and the compulsory responsibility of attention can be really intimidating to many instructors and educational professionals. Furthermore, because of such bullying of the Negligent Tort Law, school territories and brotherhoods have mandated specific ordinances, along with policies and processs to forestall such possible incidents from happening ( McCarthy, Cambron-McCabe, 1992 ) . It could be just to state that overall, instructors have the duty to protect their pupils, and the pupils have the right to be protected while in attention of the school. However, when can a instructor ‘s duty take precedency over a pupil ‘s single rights? Hypothetically, a scenario may affect a pupil, whether knowing or non-intentional, seting another pupils wellness or safety in danger. The instructor must look at the public assistance of the pudding stone of pupils and has the right and duty to take the one pupil who is endangering the public assistance of the category from the activity/classroom, or environment to guarantee the wellbeing of the remainder of the category. Some could reason that excepting or taking the pupil is in direct misdemeanor of his/her single rights. The instructor ‘s chief duty of sensible attention could hold been jeopardized due to that pupil ‘s actions as good. Article 2 The 2nd article, Response and Responsibility in the Classroom by Edgar Baguio discusses duties of pupils within the schoolroom. Although Baguio introduces the thought of response of the pupil, which entails how a pupil reacts to a instructor ‘s schoolroom direction system, duty ( Baguio, 2008 ) . Responsibility defines the pupil ‘s occupation of following policies and processs in the schoolroom ( Baguio, 2008 ) . Baguio farther discusses that an effectual schoolroom consists of non merely a instructor, but of pupils who follow through with the schoolroom duties ( Baguio, 2008 ) . He believes that both parties must make their duties so it is easier to trust and swear one another ( Baguio, 2008 ) . The schoolroom direction system becomes less of an issue when trust is established. Article 3 The article Parent-Teacher Conferencing, by Joseph C. Rotter, Edward H. Robinson III, and Mary Ann Fey, discusses the importance of communicating between instructors and parents. It is expressed that there is a important demand for effectual parent-teacher conferencing is the â€Å" legitimate right of parent to hold a voice in the instruction of their kid † ( Rotter et al, pg. 7, 1987 ) . Over the old ages, parents have been progressively more interested in their kids ‘s day-to-day educational activities. Communication is the key. â€Å" When instructors and parents view the educational procedure as a collaborative attempt, the parent-teacher conference becomes a cardinal instructional scheme that will heighten the kid ‘s growing and advance more effectual acquisition † ( Rotter et al, pg. 8, 1987 ) . The article besides addresses the different alterations that affect instructor and parent relationships. The primary concern is the alteration of the household construction and kineticss. The traditional household has changed to being blended, holding individual parents, or holding same sex parents. Because of the obvious alterations, parents and teachers no longer portion common experiences ( Rotter et al, 1987 ) . A opportunity to hold day-to-day interaction has created an obvious cuneus between instructors and parents. The inquiry is how to make full that spread. Communication is the cardinal to making solid dealingss between instructors and parents. Having parent-teacher conferences allows for the most direct signifier of communicating that can be the most meaningful nexus between place and school for the pupil ( Rotter et al, 1987 ) . However, the signifier of communicating is an of import factor. Harmonizing to Rotter et Al, as an pedagogue, holding heat, empathy, regard, concreteness, genuineness, immediateness, and confrontation are of import qualities to hold, but besides cognizing how and when to portray such qualities are requirements for effectual communicating ( Rotter et al, 1987 ) . Article 4 Sarah Ganly wrote Rights and Responsibilities of a Teacher and a Student. Ganly addresses teacher duty within the schoolroom and the rights of the pupils ( Ganly, 2007 ) . Student safety is one of the most of import duties of the instructor ( Ganly, 2007 ) . However, what is different with this peculiar article in comparing to the others is that the parent ‘s rights are addressed. Galley ‘s article addresses that parents have the right to direct their kids to school cognizing that their kid will be safe while in the attention of the school and its instructors ( Ganly, 2007 ) . Teacher ‘s liability and answerability are examined within this article. The illustration of such is that, the jurisprudence states that instructors are â€Å" held apt for a pupil ‘s public assistance if injury is foreseeable † ( Ganly, 2007 ) . Every state of affairs must be viewed separately, and if any, palliating fortunes must be taken into history excessively. When acquisition activities are off premises, the instructor ‘s rights and duties should non be taken lightly. Although, there are many policies and processs that go into readying of field trips, the pupils degree of safety should ever be examined and be the first precedence of instructors and schools. It is a instructor ‘s duty to guarantee the safety and wellbeing of each pupil on a field trip. In order for the instructor to keep overall safety for the pupils, they may hold to be forced to conflict upon a pupil ‘s single rights. This state of affairs within itself can be considered â€Å" grey affair † and fortunes have to be analyzed suitably without premises. Because of the many instances of carelessness and inappropriate behaviour go oning with schools across the state, the rights and duties of pupils and instructors has been a hot controversial issue. There seems to be a important sum of failure of recognition of the direct relationship between pupil â €˜s rights and instructor ‘s duties. Decision I feel confident that my method of schoolroom direction is really appropriate. It is a cross between Wong ‘s Pragmatic Classroom Model and Kagan, Kyle, and Scott ‘s Win-Win Discipline Model. I believe it is the pedagogue ‘s duty to learn pupils how to self-monitor their ain behaviour and keep them accountable. The ultimate ends I have for my pupils is to be able to pull off themselves suitably, to be able to run into their demands through responsible picks, and to be able to develop life accomplishments that will function them into the hereafter. The mix attack of Wong, Kagan, Kyle, and Scott works good for me to promote pupils to take ownership of their learning experience and overall success. Using both Wong ‘s Pragmatic Classroom Model and the Win-Win Discipline Model allows me to keep the pupils responsible for their ain behaviour, larning and success, they both hold the instructor responsible to working hard to keep a safe, positive schoolroom environment that helps pupil work to accomplish personal ends.

The Relationship of a Foster Child and the Social Worker

The relationship between a social worker and the children they represent in the foster care system evolves many different emotional connections. Social workers provide counseling and direction to people in crisis. Their clients may vary from the young and older unemployed to young children who are in need of foster homes right on down to the elderly people who have no one to care for them to provide for them or even someone to love them. They try to better the clients by helping them obtain government funds, education, and other treatments if needed. Social workers have many techniques for solving problems. Casework requires meetings with individuals and families. They may counsel young people whose parents have died or families who have lost all their possessions in floods or other disasters. Group work brings together people who have problems in common, such as mothers who are not married. Social workers help them solve those problems through deep conversation and well-planned activities. Community organization work usually has specific goals such as finding jobs for idle high school students and so on. In supporting my thesis I plan to highlight different situations that bring about many different emotions from both the child and the social worker. The reason that so many foster children feel the need to fight for power and control stems from what is for all intents and purposes their trying to live for or through others. The lack of known self drives the attribution of one's own attitudes, feelings, or suppositions to others that blur the boundaries between where a known self would end and others begin. Without personal boundaries the foster children often end up feeling helpless when they relate to others because essentially they aspect everything about how they feel and what they think is taking place in others. The power and control relationships a foster child and a social worker share are self explanatory. The child has been beaten badly by his or her mother. It is in the social workers power to go and remove this child from this abusive situation. This then shows the child that this person is now in control of my life, they are the ones who will save me from being harmed ever again by my mother or anyone else for that matter. Showing the child you as the social worker have the power and the control will allow the child to be able to call you and tell you if anything else may happen in their new foster home or even back at home.