Physician career research paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Physician career - Research Paper Example This paper investigates the academic requirements, career outlook, and potential income of studying medicine as a career in addition to talents and personal attributes necessary to succeed as a physician. In United States, all medical practitioners with a professional degree in medicine are regarded as physicians. UBLS (2010) classified physicians in two different categories, including Medical Doctor (MD) or allopathic physicians and Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (DO). Both classes of doctors apply all acceptable practices of treating patients, including prescription of drugs and carrying surgical operations. However, doctors of osteopathic medicine emphasize mostly on preventive medicine, muscular skeletal system of the body and holistic care of patients. Medical doctors are mainly the primary medical care providers and they are normally specialized in all medical specialties (UBLS 2010). According to OES (2011) about 50% of medical doctors practice general medicine, pediatrics, an d internal medicine. Physicians could be specialized in one or more areas of medical specialization, including anesthesiology, general pediatrics, general internal medicine, psychiatry, obstetrics and gynecology in addition to general medicine among others. The requirements for becoming a physician differ depending on the final area of medical specialization in the United States. However, physicians are normally required to complete a four-year undergraduate degree program and then proceed to a medical school where they spend another four years. This is followed by a compulsory three to seven years in resident training after which they become eligible for being licensed as doctors. In this regard, medical doctors in the United States are required to complete two degrees and specified duration of clinical residence. According to AMA (2009), both of these degrees involve general course work while during the residency; the aspiring doctor chooses his or her preferred specialty. A four- year undergraduate degree marks the beginning of physician training program in the United States. The undergraduate program involves coursework in sciences, math and English. The first degree prepares the student for entry into the medical school and students must attain specific grades to qualify. Aspiring medical students have the freedom to choose any undergraduate degree, but many of them enroll in programs with heavy emphasis on chemistry and biological sciences. However, undergraduate training differs from one institution to another. Some tertiary institutions offer pre-medical programs that include mandatory classes for medical school in addition to preparing students to pass Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) (AMA 2009). After successful completion of the undergraduate degree, aspiring medical students are required to take Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). The test compromises of multiple choice questions that examines the student‘s knowledge on physical scienc e, critical thinking, biology and communication skills. The test is computerized and it takes a maximum of five hours. The performance on this test and undergraduate degree play major role in securing admission in medical school (AMA 2009). Students who score high marks in the test and have good undergraduate degrees are almost assured of admission into the medical

Development Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Development Communication - Essay Example (Santos, 2005) Now, Philippine democracy is safe guarded by the country’s laws and other institutions which ensure that the freedom and liberty of Filipinos will be well protected. One of such institutions that serve to protect democracy in the Philippines is the Philippine media. Mass Media in the Philippines plays serves several roles. All of such roles are aimed at ensuring the continuance of a democratic society in the country. The value of media in the Philippines is very significant. The country’s history serves as a testament to the important role of media in the country specifically in the manner by which it helps uphold democracy in the Philippines. This paper aims to analyze the role of Philippine media in the country’s democratic society. Specifically, this paper aims to determine the ways by which media helps protect the rights and liberties of the Filipino people. Also, this paper will look back on the influence of media in the way by which Philippine democracy and government has evolved particularly in the last 30 years. Development communication theories will be utilized for the analysis. Such theories will be supplemented by various published literature that tackle the subject matter. Lastly, this paper will attempt to discuss the role of Philippine media in the eradication of corruption that has long impeded the country’s democratic way of life. The role that media plays in Asian countries is not as valuable as compared to Western countries. (Laird, 1999, p. 63) Moreover, media in Asia is more regulated than media in European and American countries. This is due to the fact that democracy is not as prevalent and wide spread in Asia as it is in other continents. However, globalization has slowly contributed to the evolution of media in Asia. In today’s time and age, Asian media has taken up a more valuable role. Western thought has slowly been integrated in Asian

Of Mice and Men - George and Lennie Essay Example for Free

Of Mice and Men George and Lennie Essay How does Steinbeck present the characters of George and Lennie? During the Great Depression of the 1930s when America was plunged into financial crisis following the Wall Street Crash of October 1929, levels of unemployment and poverty were at an all time high. In this ear life was a struggle and the mentality of society became survival of the fittest, every man for himself. Migrant workers toured the country in search of labour to provide money for food typically sent to relatives living on the bread line elsewhere in America. These men lead lonely and emotionless lives, which are reflected through Steinbeck’s portrayal of his characters in his famous, yet bleak, 1930s novella ‘Of Mice and Men. ’ In the novel, George and Lennie’s relationship diversifies them from the other ranch workers for the reason that they rely on each other for support and companionship ‘I got you and you got me. ’ In particular, the dream they share of owning their own land, reflects the American Dream of being the ringleader of your own life with a level of self-sufficiency. Steinbeck first introduces the reader to George and Lennie at the beginning of the novel ‘a few miles south of Soledad’, in the evening of a hot day where rabbits sat ‘as quietly as little gray, sculptured stones. ’ Disrupting the tranquil atmosphere ‘two men emerged from the path’ as the place was newly ‘lifeless’ for a moment. At first, the author presents George and Lennie as typical migrant workers, both wearing ‘denim trousers and carrying ‘tight blanket rolls’ en route to their next ranch. After creating the impression that the pair are similar, Steinbeck reveals that actually this is not the case ‘behind him walked his opposite. ’ George inhabits a small body with ‘strong, sharp features’ whereas Lennie has a ‘shapeless’ face and a ‘huge’ body. Irrespective of their appearance, it is inferred that both George and Lennie are victims of society ‘restless eyes’ and ‘dragging his feet’ constantly on guard as well as fatigued from both work and travel. Further into the first chapter, we learn that George has a level of authority over Lennie and it could be suggested that he stands as a ‘father figure’ to him. As Lennie ‘snorts into the water’ George ‘sharply’ orders him not to drink so much and informs him to never ‘drink water when it ain’t running. ’ At this moment it becomes evident that Steinbeck intends to present George and Lennie as Master and pet; the only way Lennie can cope is to be like a tame dog, tethered always to his master George and never let out of his sight ‘God you’re a lot of trouble. As the pair settle for the night under the stars, Steinbeck uses Lennie’s character to portray that the pair desire simple possessions ‘I like ‘em with ketchup’ which they can only but dream of having ‘Well we ain’t got any. ’ In this scene Steinbeck intends to emphasise that George and Lennie are unfortunate and t he reader is able to sympathise with them because basic amenities are taken for granted in society today. The scene also exhibits the fact that although George and Lennie are migrant workers they do not fit the ‘typical’ profile, this being because during moments of violence George describes what life would be like if he did not have Lennie to take care of; if he was a lone traveller, a ‘typical’ migrant worker ‘I could stay in a Cat House all night or set in a pool room and play cards. ’ Although George sometimes sees Lennie as an inconvenience it is clear that Steinbeck wishes to present George a companion to Lennie ‘he looked ashamedly’ as well as loyal ‘I want you to stay with me, somebody’d shoot you for a coyote if you was by yourself. This is poignant because it demonstrates that although Lennie keeps George in ‘hot water’ all of the time, George continues to care for Lennie because he knows the consequences of Lennie travelling alone and perhaps is also frightened of being lonely himself ‘that ain ’t no good. ’ In the same chapter, Steinbeck first incorporates the 1930s American Dream ‘An live off the fatta the lan. ’ Lennie makes George tell the familiar story of the small farm he intends to buy, delighting in hearing that he has a future. Evidentially, George does not believe the dream will ever become reality as he rhythmically reels off the words to Lennie as a matter of habit rather than optimism. That said, it is clear that although George does not believe the dream will come true he is thankful to have Lennie by his side ‘somebody to talk to that gives a damn about us’ which perhaps implies that although Steinbeck presents the pair as victims, he also presents them as lucky in the fact that they have each other and care for each other enough to build a firm relationship. To Lennie the dream is all about the rabbits he intends to keep and pet, rather than an engine of hope which drives George to continue the struggle. Lennie excites in the idea that one day he will own a rabbit hutch ‘An’ have rabbits’ because he is unable to see further than his own desires, however George dreams of simplicities such as ‘how thick the cream is on the milk’ implying that all he would like is a stable home. Regardless of their differences in the importance of aspects ncluded in the dream, their dream bonds them together in a shared goal which is to get a ‘stake’ so they can buy ‘a little house and a couple of acres. ’ Many migrant workers shared in dreaming of a better future but had nobody to share it with as everyman was for himself, making George and Lennie’s relationship a rare occurrence. Towards the end of the first chapter, George tells Lennie that if he gets in trouble he should go and hide in the brush until George comes for him ‘I want you to come right here an’ hide in the brush. This is because George recognises the cyclic nature of Lennie’s behaviour and uses his clever nature to devise a plan, something which Lennie would never have thought of doing as he is unaware of his own strength therefore he needs George for survival in the same way a child needs their parents for protection from the outside world. When George and Lennie arrive at the ranch, George reminds Lennie that he is not to speak when they are interviewed by the boss because the boss will not allow Lennie to work on the ranch if he knows of Lennie’s mental instability. George excuses Lennie’s silence telling the boss ‘he got kicked in the head, just ain’t bright’ and assures the boss ‘He’s a God damn good skinner. ’ Here, Steinbeck presents George as the voice of the pair and Lennie as the labourer, it could possibly be inferred that Steinbeck intends to present them as a team rather than George’s one man band with Lennie walking behind because Lennie is strong and can work twice as fast as one man alone, boosting their reputation leading to more work and more pay to add to their savings for the farm. It is also noticeable that the boss has ‘never seen one guy take so much trouble for another guy’ which infers not only that the boss surprised by George and Lennie’s relationship but also that because society was hostile and selfish the boss assumed that George was ‘takin’ his pay away. ’ This further infers that relationships were far and few for migrant workers during this era and that Steinbeck intends to present George and Lennie in the way he does because many would overlook the idea of a level of humanity during the 1930s. George’s companionship with Lennie staves of loneliness, but it also gives him a role in life; he has a clear task, looking after Lennie. When George explains the situation to slim in the second and third chapter ‘we kinda look after each other’, Slim offers the suggestion that ‘ever’body in the whole damn world is scared of each other. ’ Here the author offers the theme of violence because many people had lost the trust of those around them and were prepared to use violence to protect themselves, their belongings and any pride they had. George is honest with Slim ‘Made me seem God damn smart alongside of him’ admitting that early on it made him feel superior and he forced Lennie to do stupid things for the fun of it. However as his sense of shame stopped him, George began to realise that he is dependent on Lennie as much as Lennie is dependent on him because who would fight George if they knew they would have to fight Lennie as well. There are positives of George having Lennie, they defy the ethos of everyman for himself and at this stage it appears this is a key asset in their work. In the middle of the novella, George and Lennie both believe, for a short period of time, that their dream will come true ‘This thing they had never really believed in was coming true’ due to Candy’s offer of money for a place on the farm. Steinbeck demonstrates that although both men know their position, they easily become wrapped up in a fairytale unable to predict their fate of ‘grief and pain, instead of promised joy. ’ A significant part of the novel showing the devotion of George and Lennie’s relationship comes when Curley, bringing with him the theme of violence, picks a fight with Lennie. Showing his sense of justice, George won’t let Lennie get hurt as he is innocent ‘Get ‘im Lennie’, whereas the other men are reluctant to take sides; thinking of their own safety first. Experience with Lennie allows George to recognise Lennie’s strength and to encourage or discourage the use of it when appropriate. As the novel passes the midpoint when George leaves Lennie at the ranch to go to the local brothel with the other ranch hands, Lennie sees the light in Crook’s room and curiosity leads him inside. Crooks is not used to visitors in his room because of his black skin colour which he is heavily discriminated because of by the other ranch hands. He faces segregation and nobody ever wants to talk to him, this is why his bunk is away from the others. Lennie, being unaware of the social hierarchy ‘I thought I could jus’ come in’ is confused as to why Crooks is not wanted and so perseveres in conversation with him. Obviously, had George been around to keep Lennie on his tether, the situation would have been avoided. Lennie tells Crooks ‘me an’ him goes ever’ place together’ through this it is apparent that Lennie is totally dependent on George which Crooks sees as an opportunity to frighten vulnerable Lennie ‘s’pose he gets killed or hurt. ’ It is at this point where Lennie shows his sense of protection for George ‘Who hurt George? ’ and he begins to lose control of his strength walking ‘dangerously’ towards Crooks. Clearly, Lennie believes he should defend George because he is a friend, the man who is going to help him get the rabbits to tend; even when George is not around Lennie is constantly thinking about him and his safety, just as George worries for Lennie’s safety. As the novel draws to the end, Lennie’s lack of control over his strength becomes paramount. Stroking Curley’s wife’s hair, the atmosphere is relaxed and slightly playful as she prompts him to ‘feel how silky it is. When Lennie does not let go and Curley’s wife began to panic ‘struggled violently’ so does Lennie and he ‘began to cry with fright’ before he broke her neck and she ‘flopped like a fish. ’ Recognising that he has done a ‘bad thing’, Lennie acknowledges that he ‘shouldn’t have did that. George ‘ll be mad. ’ Significantly, Lennie has no moral judgement and things are ‘good’ or ‘bad ’ to him depending on what George would think of them; George could be perceived as the voice of Lennie’s conscience. Without George to guide him Lennie is lost, the pair are essential for Lennie’s survival. At the end of the novel, George becomes aware of the fact that Lennie has become a wild dog, needing to be ‘put down’ by his owner ‘I know, I know’ for the best intentions of both men. Features brought to George by his responsibility for Lennie, including his sense of shame and level of compassion and justice, all combine to force him to shoot Lennie and as Slim confirms, he ‘hadda. ’ Just before George releases the bullet, he encourages Lennie to think about the dream in order to ensure he dies in peace and happiness. This is significant in the relationship between George and Lennie as the other men from the ranch have no mercy for the ‘poor bastard’ it is only George who believes although Lennie should die, he should die a painless death. Overall, it is clear that Steinbeck presents George and Lennie as accepting victims of the economic crisis of 1930s America. He gives them a dream which should be realistic but is unfortunately out of touch and offers nothing but a chance of hope for better things to come, a reason to keep going. Ultimately, Steinbeck presents the pair as dependent on each other for their own needs. The reasoning behind Steinbeck’s use of George and Lennie comes from his intention to provide a novel that demonstrates that in the end fate is ways the winner no matter how you plan to avoid it. In this fiction, Lennie was like the mouse in the title; destined to die from the start as he is not fit for society and unfortunately George has to go on alone for himself because he recognises that with Lennie his too is closer to the hands of fate.

Literature review of concepts and theories of Motivation

Literature review of concepts and theories of Motivation In the fierce era of competition, organizations nowadays are more emphasizing on the management of Human Resources (Robert. L, 2008). Motivation; a key strategy in Human Resource Management has helped practitioners largely enough to subject the term Motivation for a discussion. Steers et al. (2004), asserted that employee motivation plays a vital role in the management field; both theoretically and practically. It is said that one of the important functions of human resource manager is to ensure job commitment at the workplace, which can only be achieved through motivation (Petcharak, 2002). Based on these reasoning, this paper shall include analytical and empirical studies to reveal the discrepancies and feasibility aspect of the domain, as Rai (2004) put forward; motivation is crucial for good performance and therefore it is increasingly important to study what motivates employees for better performance. This section offers a review of literature, which explores the concepts, types and theoretical aspects including content and process theories, theories of motivation developed in other psychological areas as well as empirical evidences in organizational contexts. 2.1 Motivation Motivation is defined as a human psychological characteristic that add to a persons degree of commitment. It is the management process of in ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡uencing employees behavior. (Badu, 2005) Conversely, Bartol and Martin (1998) relate motivation to the force that stimulates behavior, provide direction to behavior, and underlies the tendency to prevail. In other words individuals must be sufficiently stimulated and energetic, must have a clear focus on what is to be achieved, and must be willing to commit their energy for a long period of time to realize their aim in order to achieve goals. However, other than motivation being a force that stimulates behavior, Vroom (1964) emphasized on the voluntary actions. Supported by Steers et al. (2004), Vroom (1964) defined motivation as a process governing choice made by personsamong alternative forms of voluntary activity. Similarly Kreitner and Kinicki (2004) assumed that motivation incorporate those psychological processes that create the arousal, direction and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal oriented. Quite differently from the other definitions, Locke and Latham (2004) identified that motivation influence peoples acquisition of skills and the extent to which they use their ability. According to the authors the concept of motivation refers to internal factors that impel action and to external factors that can act as inducements to action. The three aspects of action that motivation can affect are direction (choice), intensity (effort), and duration (persistence). Motivation can affect both the acquisition of peoples skills and abilities; and also the extent to which they utilize their skills and abilities (Locke and Latham, 2004). In a nut shell, different authors have put forward the concept of motivation differently. Nonetheless, these definitions have three common aspects, that is, they are all principally concerned with factors or events that stimulate, channel, and prolong human behavior over time (Steers et al. 2004). 2.2 Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation Following Lakhani and Wolf (2005), Lakhani and Von Hippel (2003) and Lemer and Tirole (2004), the current scholarly thinking favors a framework that considers two components of motivation given by intrinsic and extrinsic components. Accordingly, Lawler (1969) intrinsic motivation is the degree to which feelings of esteem, growth, and competence are expected to result from successful task performance. This view bounds intrinsic motivation to an expectancy approach and expectancy theory which clearly indicates that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations summate (Porter Lawler, 1968). Moreover, as per to Amabile et al. (1993) Individuals are said to be intrinsically motivated when they seek, interest, satisfaction of curiosity, self expression, or personal challenge in the work. On the other hand individuals are said to be extrinsically motivated when they engaged in the work to gain some goal that is part of the work itself. As per to the author this definition of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is based on the individual perception of the individual perception of task and his or her reasons for engaging in it. Moreover, Amabile et al. further argued that intrinsic motivators arise from an individuals feelings with regards to the activity and they are necessary to adhere to the work itself. Conversely, extrinsic motivators although they may be dependent on the work, they are not logically an inherent part of the work. Furthermore, in line with the concept of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, De Charms (1968) suggest that external rewards might undermine intrinsic motivation. He further proposed that individuals seek for personal causation and because of the desire to be the origin of his behavior; man keeps struggling against the constraint of external forces. Thus, De Charms hypothesized that when a man perceives his behavior as originating from his own choice, he will value that behavior and its results but when he perceives his behavior as originating from external forces, that behavior and its results, even though identical in other respects to behavior of his own choosing, will be devalued. De Charms (1968) further argued that intrinsic and extrinsic motivation may interact, rather than summate that is the introduction of extrinsic rewards for the behaviors that was intrinsically rewarding may decrease rather than enhance the overall motivation. The author argued that the introduction of an extrinsic reward put the individual in a dependent position relative to the source of the reward. The locus of causality for his behavior changes from self to the external reward and thus the individuals perception of self-control, free choice, and commitment deteriorate and hence do his motivation. In addition Frey (1997) note that high intrinsic work motivation evolving from work which is interesting involves the trust and loyalty of personal relationships and is participatory. However, under certain circumstances, intrinsic motivation can be diminished, or crowded-out by external interventions like monitoring or pay-for-performance incentive schemes. This was also supported by Frey and Jegen (2001) who reviewed the literature on intrinsic motivations and found that the evidence does suggest that incentives sometimes do crowd-out intrinsic motivations. Besides, Frey (1997) suggests that the important matter is whether the external intervention is in the form of a command or a reward. Commands are most controlling in the sense that they seize self-determination from the agent, while rewards might still allow autonomy of action. The maximization of employees motivation to attain the organizations goals can only be obtained through a complete understanding of motivation theories (Reid 2002). There is a wide variety of theoretical frameworks that have been developed in the attempts to explain the issues related to motivation. Stoner, Edward and Daniel (1995) has described two different views on motivation theory, given by the earliest views and the contemporary approach which can further be subdivided into content and process theories. 2.3 Theories of Motivation 2.3.1 The earliest views of motivation One of the earliest views of motivation is Frederick W Taylor et al. (1911) scientific management theory. Taylor (1911) with regards to employee motivation proposed a paternalistic approach to managing workers and argued that workers are economic men and in order to motivate them, workers should be paid higher wages. The author also argued that the higher is the wage rate, the higher will be the level motivation and productivity. Furthermore, Taylor points out that many payment methods were ineffective, as they did not reward efficiency and he believed that a differential piece-work incentive system should be replaced with a piece rate incentive system (Wren, 2005). In other words workers should be paid according to the number of units produced in order to motivate them to work. On the other hand in line with building on the concept of motivation Elton Mayo (1953) came up with the Human Relations approach whereby the emphasis is laid on non-economic motivators. According to Elton Mayo (1953), if objectives of organizations are to be met, it must attempt to understand, respect and consider the emotions, sense of recognition and satisfaction that is the non-monetary needs of workers. He believed that employees are not just concern with money but also they need to have their social needs to be met in order to be motivated to work. He is of view that workers enjoy interactions and managers should treat them as people who have worthwhile opinions. Furthermore, McGregor (1960) postulates Theory X and Theory Y which is based on assumptions about people and work. According to this theory, there are two types of assumption made with regards to employees whereby theory X assumes that employees are lazy and therefore theory X suggests that in order to motivate employees a more autocratic style of management is required. On the other hand theory Y assumes that workers enjoy work, committed to objectives of the organization and will apply self control and self directed in the pursuit of organizational objectives and therefore does not require external control. 2.3.2 Content theories of motivation Content theories tend to focus on individual needs and attempt to explain the factors within a person that stimulate and stop behavior (Reid, 2002). According to Bassett-Jones and Lloyd (2005), content theory assume a more complex interaction between both internal and external factors, and explored the circumstances in which individuals react to different types of internal and external stimuli. The most well known content theory of motivation is the hierarchy of needs which has been put forward by Abraham Maslow (1943). According to Maslow, people are motivated by five types of needs and in order to motivate people to work more productively there is a need to offer them opportunity to satisfy those needs. He proposed that basic needs are organized in a hierarchy of prepotency and probability of appearance (Wahba and Bridwell, 1973). These needs include physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem and self-actualization. Maslow argued that once a lower order need is fulfilled, the next level of needs in the hierarchy comes into play that is once employees satisfy the lower order needs they will next consider the next level of needs. The author further argued that unfulfilled lower needs dominate ones thinking and behavior until they are satisfied (Berl et al. 1984). However this theory has also been criticized to a large extent, for example Wahba and Bridwell (1973) argued that based on the ten factor analytic studies that have attempted to test Malows theory; there is no clear evidence that human needs are classified into five different categories, or that these categories are organized in a special hierarchy. The authors contradict Malows proposition and points out that, none of the studies has shown all of Maslows five need categories as independent factors, for example some studies have showed that the self-actualization needs may emerge as an independent category. They also argued that studies have also proved the issue of need deprivation and the domination of behavior to be different from that suggested by Maslow. Moreover results have also proved that either self-actualization or security are the least satisfied needs and social needs are the most satisfied. Therefore it is difficult to determine the general pattern of the degree of sati sfaction and these trends are not the same as proposed by Maslow (Wahba and Bridwell, 1973). Conversely, Alderfer (1972) in the attempt to address the short comings of Malows theory proposed an alternative to Maslows theory which he termed as the ERG theory and postulate a three level hierarchy. Alderfer grouped Maslows five categories of needs into three categories given by Existence, Relatedness and Growth. According to the author, people are motivated by these three groups of core needs and he asserted that as one level of need is satisfied another takes over but if a need is not satisfied on a continuous basis, the individual may decide to give such a need a low priority. Nonetheless, while Maslow and Alderfer presented the concept of motivation in a hierarchy, McClelland (1961, 1971), ignored the concept of hierarchy and put forward a theory known as the acquired need theory that emphasize on three types of needs namely, need for affiliation, need for achievement and need for power. McClelland is of view that individuals experiences are acquired through life experiences that is they are learned. According to this theory individuals possess several needs, and when these needs are activated they serve to motivate behavior and this is to the contrary of Maslows proposition of a continuous progression throughout the hierarchy of needs (Steers et al. 2004). Moreover, also put differently Herzberg et al. (1959) sought to understand how work activities and the nature of an employees job influence motivation and performance. They proposed a theory that involves what they termed as motivators and hygiene factors. According to Herzberg the most crucial difference between the motivators and the hygiene factors is that the motivator factors involve psychological growth while the hygiene factors involve physical and psychological pain avoidance. The authors examined motivators and hygiene factors in the workplace and proposed that where job satisfaction was high there would be corresponding high motivation. Herzberg (1959) further argued that work motivation is influenced to a large extent by the degree to which a job is intrinsically challenging and provides opportunities for recognition and reinforcement. However despite that Herbergs theory has been widely accepted by managers (e.g Latham 2007, Miner 2005, Steers and Porter 1983), this theory has been criticized by many authors. For example Reid (2002) argued that the work of Herzberg is an examination of job satisfaction rather than motivation of employees. Reid also argued that no matter how much emphasis is laid on factors that are intrinsically rewarding, if hygiene factors such as low pay is not addressed, their full effect cannot be felt. Moreover, also Brenner et al. (1971) contradict Herzberg proposition that motivation factors increase job satisfaction and hygiene factors leads to job dissatisfaction and points out that his study and others indicated that the employees received job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction from both the motivating and the hygiene factors. Similarly Locke (1976) assessed Herzberg two factor theory and argued that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction result from different causes. 2.3.3 Emperical studies of content theories Zakeri et al. (1997) carried out research in the Iranian construction industry to find out level of Maslows hierarchy of needs are the most motivating factors and whether these factors are motivating factors or just hygiene factors as proposed by Herzberg. A list of 20 factors was chosen according to Maslows classification of needs and the lists were presented to the construction crafts- men and operatives whereby Zakeri et al. (1997) found five most motivating factors in descending order namely; fairness of pay, Incentive and financial rewards, on-time payment, good working facilities and safety. The authors argued that despite Herzbergs proposition that money is not a satisfier, this survey along with others proved that money is the most motivating factor. In addition Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) conducted research in a number of firms in South Africa to investigate the impact of need satisfaction on self-esteem and of self-esteem on performance intention as suggested by Alderfer (1972). According to the empirical results, self-esteem was found as a significant determinant of employee job performance and results showed that providing frontline employees opportunities to perform challenging work, allow participation and teaching them new things on the job will enhance their self-esteem as well as their performance intentions (Arnolds and Boshoff, 2002). The authors argued that the experiment also showed that the satisfaction of fringe benefits does not have a significant impact on performance intentions via self-esteem as an intervening variable and this support Herzbergs et al. (1959) theory. 2.3.4 Process theories of motivation Along with the content theories, there are also different process theories. According to Viorel et al. (2009) the content theories emphasize on specific factors that motivate workers with regards to certain necessities and aspirations, while the process theories emphasize on the processes and the psychological forces that have an impact on motivation. They start from the premise that motivation starts with the desire to do something. The process theories provide more realistic principles with regards to motivation techniques and therefore they are more useful to managers compared to content theories (Viorel et al. 2009). Vroom (1964), in the interest to study motivation developed an alternative to the content theories which is known as the expectancy theory. Vroom suggest that there are three mental components that are considered as instigating and directing behavior and these are referred to as Valence, Instrumentality, and Expectancy. He argued that employees rationally analyze different on-the-job work behaviors and then choose those behaviors which they believe will lead to their most valued work-related rewards and outcomes. Moreover, Porter and Lawler (1968) expanded Vrooms work to identify the role of individual differences for example employee abilities and skills and the role clarity in relating job effort to actual job performance. Porter and Lawler also explained the relationship between performance and satisfaction and argued that this relationship is mediated by the extent and quality of the rewards that employees receive in return for their job performance. In addition to expectancy theory Adams (1963), developed the equity theory to clarify how employees respond cognitively and behaviorally with regards to unfairness in the workplace. Adams suggested that employees develop beliefs about what constitutes a fair and equitable return for their job performance and contributions therefore employees always compare their efforts and the associated rewards with that of other employees and in case there is a situation whereby there is an element of injustice or unfairness there is an imbalance that is a perception of inequity will result. The author is therefore of view that when perception of inequity occurs the employee will get engaged in activities and do effort in order to reduce the inequity. On the other hand, quite differently Latham and Locke (1979) came up with the goal setting theory. According to Latham (2004), the underlying premise of the goal setting theory is that ones conscious goals affect what one achieves. The author argued that this is because a goal is said to be the objective or aim of an action and having a specific goal result to improved performance. Employees with specific hard goals tend to perform better compared to those with vague goals and that a goal is a standard for assessing an individuals performance. Moreover, Latham also suggested that to the extent that the goal is met or exceeded, satisfaction increases; and conversely, to the extent that performance falls short of the goal, ones satisfaction decreases. While content theories have tended to focus on needs of people and process theories have focused on factors motivating people, Adair (2006) have brought some new issues in the field of employee motivation and developed a new theory of motivation known as the Fifty-Fifty rule. Unlike the authors of content and process theories, Adair is of view that motivation lies both within an individual as well as external to the individual. According to the author, 50 percent of motivation lies within a person and fifty percent lies outside the person however Adair points out that this theory does not assert for the exactly fifty-fifty proportion in the equation but it only emphasized on the idea that a considerable part of motivation lies within a person while a considerable part lies outside and beyond its control. 2.3.5 Emperical studies of process theories With regards to Adams Equity theory, Levine (1993) calculated wage residuals for more than 8,000 manufacturing employees. Wage residuals re ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ect employees wages relative to employees with similar demographics and human capital in terms of education and training (Ambrose and Kulik, 1999). Levine found that employees with higher wage residuals reported that they were less likely to leave, were more satis ¬Ã‚ ed with their pay, were willing to work harder than they had to, and were more committed to the organization. Therefore in line with this argument, the author pointed out that employees with low wage residuals might be expected to experience inequity or unfairness relative to similar others and exhibit negative responses. Moreover Arnolds and Boshoff (2002) conducted research in a number of South African firms whereby they analyzed the application of the expectancy theory put forward by Vroom (1964) and they argued that the satisfaction with pay and fringe benefits does not impact on the performance intentions of frontline employees because these need satisfactions do not have any esteem valence for these employees. In other words, frontline employees do not have a higher regard of themselves if they are getting enough pay to fulfill basic necessities (Arnolds and Boshoff, 2002). Besides based on the Goal Setting theory, Stans ¬Ã‚ eld and Longenecker (2006) performed a study in a traditional manufacturing plant in the Midwestern USA to develop a model of efficient and effective goal setting and feedback practices for manufacturing. According to the authors the study showed that an information system, facilitating goal setting and feedback can play a vital role in improving individual performance levels. Stansfield and Longenecker also found that employee motivation and performance were both improved in the study, which lead to better organizational performance and pro ¬Ã‚ tability. The authors also argued that goal setting and feedback can create competitive advantage for manufacturers with a minimum investment of time and capital if they implement these practices with proper coordination. 2.3.6 Reinforcement Theory B.F. Skinner (1953) compared to need and process theories, came up with a different theory known as the reinforcement theory in which he proposed that peoples behavior is dependent upon its consequences. He suggested that if consequences of behavior is positive then such behavior will be repeated and vice-versa. Skinner (1953) argued that behavior can thus be reinforced through different forms of reinforcement or rewards. According to him individuals can be influenced in four different ways given by positive reinforcement (a reward such as praise so that the person repeat the behavior), negative reinforcement (rewarding employees by removing unwanted consequences), extinction (deliberately withheld positive reinforcement to discourage unwanted behavior) and punishment (applying undesirable consequences for unwanted behaviors). Through these theories, it can be said that work motivation has been characterized by dimensions such as interesting job, ability to perform, recognition, adequate pay, and feedback on performance (Dwivedula and Bredillet, 2010). However according to Meyer et al. (2004) it is also very important to consider differences in the psychological states, or mindsets that can accompany motivation. Therefore, Meyer et al. (2004) argued that motivation theories developed in other areas of psychology render a convincing case that motivation is multidimensional. 2.3.7 Adaptation-Level Theory Bowling et al. (2005) argued that the adaptation-level theory (Helson, 1948, 1964a, 1964b), offers one potential explanation for the temporal stability of job satisfaction. Bowling explained that the theory postulates that someones evaluation of an outcome is said to be a function of previous experiences outcomes. For example, an employee who has worked for years without a pay raise would be expected to respond positively to even a small pay increase because this change in pay would be different from that individuals adaptation level, however the positive response would be temporary as the individuals adaptation level would eventually change as the experience of the pay increase is integrated into the employees adaptation level (Bowling et al. 2005). 2.3.8 Self-Regulatory Theory Moreover quite differently, Higgins (1997, 1998) proposed the regulatory focus theory that draw important differences in the processes through which individuals approach pleasure and avoid pain. Huggins proposed that individuals have two types of motivational systems given by a system that regulates rewards (promotion focus) and one that regulates punishments (prevention focus). According to the author people who operate primarily within the promotion focus are concerned with accomplishments, are sensible towards the existence or absence of rewards, adopt a goal attainment strategy, are more creative and are more willing to take risks. However, people who operate within the prevention focus tend to be more concerned with duties and responsibilities and are more sensitive to the existence or absence of punishments. Moreover the regulatory focus is ascertained both by situational and chronic factors (Higgins, 1997, 1998). 2.3.9 Activation theory On the other hand Anderson (1976, 1983) came up with the activation theory whereby he argued that the strongest motivating factor is the work itself however over time as the worker get used with the environment and learns the responses required in the repetitive task there may be a fall in the activation level or job stimulation. It is important to highlight that over time all work tends to become repetitive after the job has been practiced and therefore a wide range of dysfunctional and non-task activities must be pursued to offset the fall in the job stimulation level (Milbourn 1984). Moreover according to Milbourn (1984), if dysfunctional activities are addressed, managers can consider enriching jobs through job redesign to reduce monotony at work in order to maintain job stimulation. 2.4 Motivational practices in Organizational environment According to Islam and Ismail (2008) the theories mentioned continue to offer the foundation for organization and managerial development practices to a large extent. Along with the above theories, during the last decade, based on employees motivation many empirical studies have been carried out (Islam and Ismail, 2008). For example, Bent et al. (1999) carried out research in small food manufacturing businesses whereby respondents were asked to complete, using a five-point Likert scale about how they felt motivated and then how satisfied they were with their jobs and the authors found that the degree of positive motivation was high. According to Bent et al. (1999) the employees were either very or moderately motivated with their jobs, however it was important to note that no respondents stated that they were either very motivated or very dissatisfied with their job. The authors also argued that issues which are associated with individual management style include lack of appreciation f rom management to feel for the work of employees and that there was also poor communication contributing to low job satisfaction and this contrasts with the identification by employees, of the motivating or satisfying qualities of a good management style. Moreover VaitkuvienÄ- (2010) conducted research in two Swedish manufacturing companies given by, the company Frilight AB and Enitor Plast AB and reported that the workers were found satisfied with the working conditions, training of staffs and career opportunities. The author argued that the Swedish employees were motivated and that the employees do not avoid responsibilities and follow directions. VaitkuvienÄ- (2010) also found that almost all employees are stimulated with the organizing of recreational tours, holidays and events. According to the author more than half of employees in the Sweden manufacturing companies are stimulated through gifts on various occasions (birthdays, holidays), free meals at work, health insurance coverage, work, clothes, equipment, travels for the company employees, days off, recognition and good working conditions and therefore the author pointed out that the employees of the manufacturing companies consider non-financial motivation tools to b e more important. Eventually, Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010), in line with the authors Cummings and Blumberg (1987) pointed out that studies from the manufacturing sector emphasize on the importance of providing autonomy, and skill variety to the employees which are otherwise absent. On the other hand Adler (1991) observed and concluded that manufacturing firms rely on job rotation, and voluntary job switching to motivate the employees. Moreover, Galia (2008) supported by Dwivedula and Bredillet (2010) reported that more recently it has been observed that, in a survey of 5000 manufacturing  ¬Ã‚ rms by SESSI (Industrial Statistics Department of the French Ministry of Economics, Finance, and Industry), practices such as autonomy at work, incentives to promote creativity have been widely adopted in order to motivate the workers.

To Kill A Mockingbird Essay: Southern Tradition Exposed -- Kill Mockin

Southerners are known to be proud of their traditional beliefs. To Kill A Mockingbird allows its readers to question and consider those beliefs. Maycomb represents a typical old southern town. Not many people move into Maycomb and not many people who live there journey beyond its boundaries. As a result, the opinions held by many of the citizens of Maycomb are left to grow and foster in the same families for many generations. The circumstances in Maycomb are less than ideal for generating change and more prone to sustaining traditionally accepted codes. Two codes embedded within southern social beliefs are class and race. The years of 1960 and 1961, when To Kill A Mockingbird was published, signaled a time of great change. The civil rights movement was in full swing and the country was undergoing social and economic reconstruction. Traditional thinking was being transformed into ideas and thoughts that had never been considered before, and old traditions were pitted against new ones. Looking into the Deep South, in a little town named Maycomb, tradition for most people meant prejudice, separation, and racism. Atticus Finch chooses to fight against this "old tradition" with traditions of his own. Because of his highly ethical character, Atticus is able to honorably defend Tom Robinson and promote a "new tradition" for himself and his children. Respect, dignity, and equality form the backbone of Atticus' belief system, a belief system containing qualities that are often overlooked in the traditional South. In the absence of outside support, Atticus fights his battle the only way he knows how -- with pat ience, perseverance, and honesty. The South and tradition are synonymous. Southerners are known to be proud of their tra... ... After realizing that he is fighting an uphill battle, it is Atticus' integrity that keeps him pushing forward. He sees the problems with southern traditional social codes and he realizes they must be redefined -- for the sake of his children, and his children's children. Atticus knows that one of these days someone is "going to pay the bill for it"(p.221). He realizes that traditional beliefs will not be changed over night, and he does not expect it. His solution to his dilemma is to stick firmly to his southern tradition and his beliefs. Atticus Finch is a true Southern gentleman. His courage, nobility, pride, and honesty allow him to do what few men at the time could do. Atticus does not fool himself by ignoring the inevitable. He accepts his position and attacks the traditional views that he does not believe in like a true gentleman -- face to face.

Discuss how the historical, political and social setting of Harper Lees :: English Literature

Discuss how the historical, political and social setting of Harper Lee's novel To Kill a Mockingbird contributes to the fears that are present in Maycomb County. "Maycomb County had recently been told that it had nothing to fear but fear itself." (Scout Finch, Chapter 1, 'To Kill a Mockingbird'). 'To Kill A Mockingbird' is set in a small town in Maycomb County, Alabama, in the 1930s, which was a dark period in time for America as it had been hit by the Depression. Up until 1929, America had been doing very well, becoming a much richer country. However in 1929 when stocks had soared to an all time high, in September they plummeted. This day in history is known as Black Thursday and is remembered as the Wall Street Crash of '29. The crash hit people's interests hard and Americans all over lost a lot of money. Banks had to spend all of the money they had on regaining the economy, and agricultural needs were ignored, and didn't seem as important as other things like industry. Landowners had let out land to farmers to grow crops in, and when the Wall Street Crash hit them, they wanted to regain their land, as it was all they had. Therefore, the crash hit farmers the most and the Deep South was hit very badly because so many people were farmers by trade. There were many black people in the South of America, especially Alabama, and there was great racial hatred between them and the white communities. The Civil War from 1861-1865 between the North of America who wanted the abolition of slavery, and the South who wanted to keep slavery resulted in victory by the North, and slavery was later abolished. The South had lost its pride, and this was the reason for the racial hatred. Black people were thought to be inferior to white people and in the 1960s when the novel was written, black communities were rioting and causing disturbances to get across the point that they were not inferior to white people. After Abolition Black people were terrorised by the Ku Klux Klan, who would burn them, rape the women, and torture the children and the reader is shown an example of this in Chapter 15 where a group of white people, go to the county jail to terrorise Tom Robinson. Maybe this hatred for the Negroes wasn't hatred after all, but brought about by fear. As slavery had been abolished, black people were entitled to the same rights as white people, however they were still ostracised by white people because of their colour.

Critical Thinking and Sexual Decision

Critical Thinking and Sexual Decision PSY/265 January 18, 2013 Critical Thinking and Sexual Decision When using value systems for making sexual decisions, you are talking about legalism, Situational ethics, ethical revelation, hedonism, ascetism, utilitarianism and rationalism. Each of these value systems is another way of justifying why you make the decisions you make. According to Rathus, Nevid, and Fichner-Rathus (2011) legalism is when people base their decisions on an external code of moral laws such as religion.Situational ethics is when people base their decisions on what they are facing at the present time. Ethical relativism is when people believe that there is more than one correct moral view and bases their decisions on their principles and their conscience. Hedonism is when people base their decision on if something feels good or not with no regard to any morals. Ascetism is the belief of self-denial of material and sexual desires, therefore making their decisions based o n that belief. Utilitarianism is when people base a decision on â€Å"the greatest good for the greatest number. Rationalism is when people base their decision after weighing the pros and cons about doing something. When it came to me personally I would have to say that I can see myself using two of the value systems. The first would be ethical relativism. Although I do not feel that there is one set of morals, I do base my decisions on my principles and my conscience. An example of this would be when a man thought that he could buy me. He told me that I could have anything I wanted, and that he would pay my bills, as well as making sure that my children would want for nothing and that all I had to do was sleep with him.The catch is, he was married. When facing this choice it was my principles and my conscience that made me say no. The second would be rationalism. The reason for this is because I always weigh the pros and cons before making any decision in my life. These decisions can be anything from how I spend my money, to whom I may have sex with. References: Rathus, S. A. , Nevid, J. S. , & Fichner-Rathus, L. (2011). Human Sexuality in a World of Diversity (8th ed. ). Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn